tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6998204293132891132024-03-15T18:10:14.166-07:00Byzantine MilitaryGaryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.comBlogger217125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-46032300135948950132024-03-08T13:29:00.000-08:002024-03-08T13:50:27.976-08:00Defending The Roman Frontier - Random Thoughts<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcXPbSGYwjGz5e4D7aRrg6_eX65mzh05trUn0Qqrhx6VHgqAStnTr1Mml0Nd61Sh7qwqF4jhyMHwTSccytpkyVNDf4o13KfH6IYLzCwQoW0v2MkiGtGhOvC8VnqemJJUf4dyLKrGq78mA4POSghp6s3A34mOBK5E9PIjojtNcZgAASrr4y8-wg3HWJzzE/s695/minds1.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="695" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcXPbSGYwjGz5e4D7aRrg6_eX65mzh05trUn0Qqrhx6VHgqAStnTr1Mml0Nd61Sh7qwqF4jhyMHwTSccytpkyVNDf4o13KfH6IYLzCwQoW0v2MkiGtGhOvC8VnqemJJUf4dyLKrGq78mA4POSghp6s3A34mOBK5E9PIjojtNcZgAASrr4y8-wg3HWJzzE/s16000/minds1.png" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Defending The Roman Frontier</span></u></b></div><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">My thoughts have turned to the many, varied and often tiny Roman border outposts.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">Think of the many American Westerns with small and always undermanned frontier forts. The local garrisons were on alert 24-7 against Indian raids targeting local farmers and commercial traffic.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The borders of the Roman Empire were enormous. Protecting Roman citizens from barbarian raids was as close to impossible as you can get. </span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">Doubtless there were thousands of stories to be told of heroism, slaughter and sacrifice, but those stories are all lost to the mists of time.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3RUbC7aqkaWot0JwATX4BvFP1TtVK-xi0Qy1ZLGMBq-j0Q9DXGw3wfBtVQhM1hNZPGw7WKto7SKs68zMeHhj8WEUi6S1aix-IgqnYBuhwykQ1QZD0OwIKFSzx9DXIu8Y8K0hLUZBH7hd5WUxEETFpX97H4PWUKkPfYTY3QVyhr-zgtyChOwtw4FZTkPg/s700/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="700" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3RUbC7aqkaWot0JwATX4BvFP1TtVK-xi0Qy1ZLGMBq-j0Q9DXGw3wfBtVQhM1hNZPGw7WKto7SKs68zMeHhj8WEUi6S1aix-IgqnYBuhwykQ1QZD0OwIKFSzx9DXIu8Y8K0hLUZBH7hd5WUxEETFpX97H4PWUKkPfYTY3QVyhr-zgtyChOwtw4FZTkPg/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><br /><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The grand strategy of the empire was, on the whole, defensive.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Sahara, Euphrates, Danube, and Rhine were natural frontiers, and it was exceptional when the Romans launched new campaigns of conquest. If territory was added, it was to shorten the frontier, or to improve a vulnerable part of the frontier. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The basic principle of defense was deterrence</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">: wherever the enemy attacked, he would always find a professional, heavily armed Roman force that often outnumbered him. Except for the desert frontier, the limes usually consisted of a clear line where the enemy had to stay away from (e.g., Hadrian's Wall or the river Danube)</span></span><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: 13.2px;">.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">However, sometimes the line was attacked. </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The soldiers in the watchtowers signaled the invasion to the nearby forts.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> The watchtowers themselves were lost, but the invaders would immediately have to face with Roman forces from nearby forts.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Almost always, this was sufficient to deal with the situation. If the attackers were able to reach and loot a city, they would be massacred on their way home. The final act of every attempt to attack the empire was Roman retaliation against the native population.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjz6iGCQ4vi-D3PqO8_xgiHCOuYG1qgRa4lPzxFNpyWn3rWpejoPuFMM18rYUoGF994mfLXTGt9rvz7UpcTE0VaToMZ4IwdUa6q2xV04pyxZCOpSWfOwEeiykGRdYuxzRt7hpx_KOdo7fNa31paLRV5X-iZ_WVzHOSJ1rhdktsr1ki-nuf-I5otXtAuMiw/s500/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjz6iGCQ4vi-D3PqO8_xgiHCOuYG1qgRa4lPzxFNpyWn3rWpejoPuFMM18rYUoGF994mfLXTGt9rvz7UpcTE0VaToMZ4IwdUa6q2xV04pyxZCOpSWfOwEeiykGRdYuxzRt7hpx_KOdo7fNa31paLRV5X-iZ_WVzHOSJ1rhdktsr1ki-nuf-I5otXtAuMiw/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Reconstruction of a </span><em style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Limes</em><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"> tower in </span><a href="http://www.fectio.org.uk/sites/limes1973b.htm" style="background-color: white; color: #2288bb; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">Germany.</a></b></span></div><br /><p><br /></p><h1 class="style-scope ytd-watch-metadata" style="-webkit-box-orient: vertical; -webkit-line-clamp: 2; background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; color: #0f0f0f; display: -webkit-box; line-height: 2.8rem; margin: 0px; max-height: 5.6rem; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis; word-break: break-word;"><yt-formatted-string class="style-scope ytd-watch-metadata" force-default-style=""><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><u>The Roman Frontier in Jordan</u></span></yt-formatted-string></h1><p><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/GT--nRBQCtE?si=puqAJHNIYYMHY3eJ" title="YouTube video player" width="550"></iframe>
</p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqBasGQNWAsIFTi_v9uQ_0q4eEa_GpTjp5qRW5SUxOs24KY_r0ys1qzYPfvdlG78Z9mIgHE-McB6IcF82or8qPMQ4qBxY2xkzXaVHP3hZOVVhnbFgdiJCLLRxzy3kvnbkkiItgwEQ4SO_Y_85ckm3qzFLbSR6JcA8sM0wkXP0sPlTPZIetA9sxvtFe9xY/s500/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="332" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqBasGQNWAsIFTi_v9uQ_0q4eEa_GpTjp5qRW5SUxOs24KY_r0ys1qzYPfvdlG78Z9mIgHE-McB6IcF82or8qPMQ4qBxY2xkzXaVHP3hZOVVhnbFgdiJCLLRxzy3kvnbkkiItgwEQ4SO_Y_85ckm3qzFLbSR6JcA8sM0wkXP0sPlTPZIetA9sxvtFe9xY/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>The Roman Fortress of </u></b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Qasr Bashir in Jordan</u></b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: small;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Qasr Bashir</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> is an extremely well preserved Roman fortress that lies in the Jordanian desert. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Qasr Bshir belongs to the chain of forts and watchtowers that is known as the </span><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic; text-align: start;">Limes Arabicus</span><span style="text-align: start;"><span style="background-color: white;"> and was meant to protect the province of Arabia against </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">roaming desert nomads.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> They were not extremely dangerous or exceptionally violent, but their dromedaries made them swift, and if trouble arose, they could pillage large parts of the Roman countryside. The Limes Arabicus had to counter this threat, and Mobene was one of the fortifications.</span></span><br style="background-color: white; text-align: start;" /><br style="background-color: white; text-align: start;" /><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Built at the beginning of the fourth Century AD and known as Mobene, the walls of Qasr Bashir still stand intact, at a height of up to 20 feet in places, while the main entrance remains to this day. The huge corner towers still rise up two stories from the ground.</span><br style="background-color: white; text-align: start;" /><br style="background-color: white; text-align: start;" /><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">It is likely that Qasr Bashir was originally home to an </span><strong style="text-align: start;"><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">auxiliary cavalry</u></strong><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> unit, charged with defending the Roman frontier and keeping the peace in the surrounding area.</span></span><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: 13.2px; text-align: start;"> </span></div><p><br /></p><h1 class="style-scope ytd-watch-metadata" style="-webkit-box-orient: vertical; -webkit-line-clamp: 2; background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; color: #0f0f0f; display: -webkit-box; line-height: 2.8rem; margin: 0px; max-height: 5.6rem; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis; word-break: break-word;"><yt-formatted-string class="style-scope ytd-watch-metadata" force-default-style=""><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><u>The Roman Frontier in the East -- Qasr Bashir Fort Reconstructed</u></span></yt-formatted-string></h1><p><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SCyTv1sE5Vg?si=Gb86IAvzv-AtOb5b" title="YouTube video player" width="550"></iframe>
</p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgU-mj6B-xL7HuQfxayhRkXu4EZHBZGfqGc42Kq45m3VraatKcvDoGfaR7C4ah97jFhj4iyXi_Js0H33isbKyegeW6a8t7aAWYBvwAnXBnOrfhuqVjLvj1QLGmEY6PeMZkwmw0xh_jmGnGrXSd2UFKBAL62P7ONFdCYpDB9nY_6VnhSs4vJNZE6n7-8raM/s491/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="347" data-original-width="491" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgU-mj6B-xL7HuQfxayhRkXu4EZHBZGfqGc42Kq45m3VraatKcvDoGfaR7C4ah97jFhj4iyXi_Js0H33isbKyegeW6a8t7aAWYBvwAnXBnOrfhuqVjLvj1QLGmEY6PeMZkwmw0xh_jmGnGrXSd2UFKBAL62P7ONFdCYpDB9nY_6VnhSs4vJNZE6n7-8raM/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">Think of the word <span style="color: red;">"Porous"</span></span></u></strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px;" /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: small;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The <em>Danube Limes</em> was not a solid wall defending the Empire's frontier. Rather it a was a series of fortified cities, small forts and watchtowers. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Limes was porous with assorted invading Slavs, Huns or Avars pouring through on raids dedicated to looting or conquest. In theory the Roman/Byzantine strongpoints would slow down invaders allowing for troops stationed close by to push the enemy back over the border.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCCjes_IqAHpsFhyphenhyphenHyX7t45NOrFZEukxcTK-yzGW1Y_ntZ2XjPsaDP_LkD8liJbkreAU1-xzrfnjV-xvz7p8SG5C3JK4oBbc9e5PsrGPxWnS1Q_I2arco-HOe7O_AVDm81OKXzq4Kck7UZYNGvqXukj3KSpmmt_GTPKJo8mkPQnZcjY1jd2EiHQps9FVM/s500/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="358" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCCjes_IqAHpsFhyphenhyphenHyX7t45NOrFZEukxcTK-yzGW1Y_ntZ2XjPsaDP_LkD8liJbkreAU1-xzrfnjV-xvz7p8SG5C3JK4oBbc9e5PsrGPxWnS1Q_I2arco-HOe7O_AVDm81OKXzq4Kck7UZYNGvqXukj3KSpmmt_GTPKJo8mkPQnZcjY1jd2EiHQps9FVM/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Reconstruction of a Balkan Roman frontier strongpoint.</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1ZiNDnPBxElKu2-LX8lk9CuCDZKKtfugGCh6n3sl5ECViO7udhzay8O-AvOJoBaSYyNfoVLtVUkXIDRaZUC0c7ebSfuucH19QBqmuYnmo3GYy6vcX12KRz-3iCC0RUVg_jEN6AnPKYBajTCRZLRL5SV-A4LTEXZNrqt5ZTzH5meqkP-49YdOfCyRCCRw/s500/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1ZiNDnPBxElKu2-LX8lk9CuCDZKKtfugGCh6n3sl5ECViO7udhzay8O-AvOJoBaSYyNfoVLtVUkXIDRaZUC0c7ebSfuucH19QBqmuYnmo3GYy6vcX12KRz-3iCC0RUVg_jEN6AnPKYBajTCRZLRL5SV-A4LTEXZNrqt5ZTzH5meqkP-49YdOfCyRCCRw/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: white;">The southern harbor of the Roman fortress of </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;">Boreum in Libya. </span><span style="background-color: white;"> What is left of the citadel is to the right.</span></b></span></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The military post of </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Boreum was about as far from anything that resembled civilization as you could find</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> under either Rome or Byzantium.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">I suspect any commander assigned to this remote post was on the </span><b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">shit list</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> in Constantinople. "Here is your new posting. We will relieve you in about 20 years."</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The area was so remote that the historian Procopius reports in the 500s that civil servants from Libya who were promoted to posts in Constantinople had problems communicating with government staff. They spoke only Latin and did not speak Greek.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">As a frontier town, Boreum was mentioned by </span><span style="background-color: white;">Ptolemy of Alexandria about 130 A.D. </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The main job of the garrison was to keep inland tribes from causing trouble with the coastal farming communities.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirLpcfOWSxCdcg8MGn2Iyrh2nSNzxc9qja2NO7pEPfT6Fw9KfXY7jpA1BD7qFPXgP3kpuE4DHOIeUTrCgmTCcsxJQoK8ptbYKtayczU83-sNe52mc7nrcbpW2FkObh_Qrb4V4CoHxSNIbnR2GTqyq9Tsg0iG74n64ZaA-tPyHu74GAgRF2SeDMuBG3mNw/s500/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="358" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirLpcfOWSxCdcg8MGn2Iyrh2nSNzxc9qja2NO7pEPfT6Fw9KfXY7jpA1BD7qFPXgP3kpuE4DHOIeUTrCgmTCcsxJQoK8ptbYKtayczU83-sNe52mc7nrcbpW2FkObh_Qrb4V4CoHxSNIbnR2GTqyq9Tsg0iG74n64ZaA-tPyHu74GAgRF2SeDMuBG3mNw/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0BtsWoR48WB8QMM4vNLxfXKsQBOuN-Kk7cn-3DK1HaeoXjOZlPfTdBo1CG4_nIhokXW2RhSP5iTKtuHaqNq3iAbfI6DfSgeuRCsAA6p_jMkJECdvM2jwUXZbt7BSC6gv4gb6-DGZnr93f-n_PbQU1PJWspD0bnlsg0HSTxRduiUjBJ7sNQV5d_pU75uQ/s753/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="753" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0BtsWoR48WB8QMM4vNLxfXKsQBOuN-Kk7cn-3DK1HaeoXjOZlPfTdBo1CG4_nIhokXW2RhSP5iTKtuHaqNq3iAbfI6DfSgeuRCsAA6p_jMkJECdvM2jwUXZbt7BSC6gv4gb6-DGZnr93f-n_PbQU1PJWspD0bnlsg0HSTxRduiUjBJ7sNQV5d_pU75uQ/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong style="background-color: white;"><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">The Walls of Ceuta, in </span></u></strong></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong style="background-color: white;"><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">what was Byzantine Morocco</span></u></strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px;" /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: small;"><span class="style9"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span class="style9">Currently ruled by Spain, the ancient Royal Walls originally date back to the 5th century. </span>Ceuta's location has made it an important commercial trade and military way-point for many cultures, beginning with the Carthaginians in the 5th century BC, who called the city <i><b>Abyla</b></i>. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">It was not until the Romans took control of the region in AD 42 that the port city, then named </span><i style="background-color: white;"><b>Septa</b></i><span style="background-color: white;">, assumed an almost exclusive military purpose. It changed hands again approximately 400 years later, when Vandal tribes ousted the Romans. It then fell into the hands of the Visigoths, and </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">finally it would become the western most outpost of the Eastern Roman Empire.</u></b><br style="background-color: white;" /><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><br style="background-color: white;" /><span style="background-color: white;">Around 710, as Muslim armies approached the city, its Byzantine Governor, </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian,_count_of_Ceuta" style="background-color: white; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Julian, count of Ceuta">Julian</a><span style="background-color: white;"> changed his allegiance, and exhorted the Muslims to invade the Iberian Peninsula.</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_LXMXzkUT4rkElBoKNAvNmbfovJihrWk4Bi3KNky3lCihDK8YUx65-wjTWOjVk1LTm3dszXP8CpzwTHgoVUzQJG_Bl1bmtizM4-37DM_vTOrtJTSlgKEGFo5f2QbunPVt8JcJaZTEXRybVQdJYkS45W2fAuXKoAnyWawWZCslHlYxBPbofX4tGOQ7t40/s720/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="539" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_LXMXzkUT4rkElBoKNAvNmbfovJihrWk4Bi3KNky3lCihDK8YUx65-wjTWOjVk1LTm3dszXP8CpzwTHgoVUzQJG_Bl1bmtizM4-37DM_vTOrtJTSlgKEGFo5f2QbunPVt8JcJaZTEXRybVQdJYkS45W2fAuXKoAnyWawWZCslHlYxBPbofX4tGOQ7t40/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">6th Century Eastern Roman Cavalry</span></strong></div><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-63450611445447588232023-11-20T10:34:00.000-08:002023-11-20T10:34:57.950-08:00Debasing of the Quaestorship<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXlzX-74l7mTvPE-1jwRpqa2faXC-02IY0I7gQ6VgQ9hiyYTXCrO7vO5ihN9HKhKHZyCiCCA4rb8qvRxcczDqL0Y0ugv130AUXb7M7eGqFSpo9jt2UWIBxg6D-er_vVHndICsXgxcbI7oOMqKXAJbqGUZHGf5d6JDDwv7e-u1jtIFzGPeJAuYqfbCSqMI/s498/minds.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="278" data-original-width="498" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXlzX-74l7mTvPE-1jwRpqa2faXC-02IY0I7gQ6VgQ9hiyYTXCrO7vO5ihN9HKhKHZyCiCCA4rb8qvRxcczDqL0Y0ugv130AUXb7M7eGqFSpo9jt2UWIBxg6D-er_vVHndICsXgxcbI7oOMqKXAJbqGUZHGf5d6JDDwv7e-u1jtIFzGPeJAuYqfbCSqMI/s16000/minds.gif" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Corruptus in Extremis</u></b></span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-size: large;">Looting the treasury was, and is, a favorite hobby of kings, presidents and government officials.</span></li><li><span style="font-size: large;">In his <i>Secret History</i> Procopius unloads of the massive corruption of Emperor Justinian and his dictatorial rule.</span></li><li><span style="font-size: large;">The endless wars and building programs of Justinian drained the Imperial Treasury forcing the Emperor to financially rape his subjects and confiscate estates.</span></li></ul><p></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b>By Procopius of Caesarea</b></span><br style="background-color: white;" /><span style="background-color: white;">500 - 554 AD</span><br style="background-color: white;" /><span style="background-color: white;"><i>The Secret History</i></span></span></p><p><span class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">He also had contrived other ways of <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">plundering his subjects</u></b> (which I will now describe as well as I can) by which he robbed them, not all at once, but little by little of their entire fortunes. First he appointed a new municipal magistrate, with the power to license shopkeepers to sell their wares at whatever prices they desired: for which privilege they paid an annual tax. </span></span></p><p><span class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Accordingly, people buying their provisions in these shops had to pay three times what the stuff was worth, and complainants had no redress, though great harm was thus done; for the magistrates saw to it that the imperial tax was fattened accordingly, which was to their advantage. Thus the government officials shared in this disgraceful business, while the shopkeepers, empowered to act illegally, cheated unbearably those who had to buy from them, not only by raising their prices many times over, as I have said, but by defrauding customers in other unheard-of ways.</span></span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Again he licensed many monopolies, as they -are called; <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">selling the freedom of his subjects</u></b> to those who were willing to undertake this reprehensible traffic, after he had exacted his price for the privilege. To those who made this arrangement with him, he gave the power to manage the business however they pleased; and he sold this privilege openly, even to all the other magistrates. And since the Emperor always got his little share of the plundering, these officials and their subordinates in charge of the work, did their robbing with small anxiety.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">As if the formerly appointed magistrates were not enough for this purpose, he created two new ones; though the municipal Prefect had formerly been able to look after all criminal charges. His real reason for the change was, of course, so that he could have additional informers, and thus misuse the innocent with more celerity. Of the two new officials, one, nominally appointed to punish thieves, was called Praetor of the People; the other was charged with the punishment of cases of pederasty, illegal intercourse with women, blasphemy, and heresy; and his official name was Quaestor.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3TPBWaKoEQx4_Cq-FVtWwl_49q1lAMeY60aoXAayGfBmj7zZreIo6Mar4YYiRIFrW02qrkp-LVaqKoORn_ZtAV65LStWohxVEHjNUiLLd295L_VyJZn6vq_fRtj9y0cc-wVkP-ESebqLVqygA8P9BOUOKWfYcKi3JJ_0206ywgdp-2nUfz5kleJKBv4A/s674/minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="674" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3TPBWaKoEQx4_Cq-FVtWwl_49q1lAMeY60aoXAayGfBmj7zZreIo6Mar4YYiRIFrW02qrkp-LVaqKoORn_ZtAV65LStWohxVEHjNUiLLd295L_VyJZn6vq_fRtj9y0cc-wVkP-ESebqLVqygA8P9BOUOKWfYcKi3JJ_0206ywgdp-2nUfz5kleJKBv4A/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b>Emperor Justinian I</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b>Reign 527 to 565 AD</b></span></div><br /><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><p></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Now the Praetor, whenever he found anything very valuable among the stolen goods that came to his notice, was supposed to give it to the Emperor and say that no owner had appeared to claim it. In this way <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Emperor continually got possession of priceless goods</u></b>. And the Quaestor, when he condemned persons coming before him, confiscated as much as he pleased of their properties, and the Emperor shared with him each time in the lawlessly gained riches of other people. For the subordinates of these magistrates neither produced accusers nor offered witnesses when these cases came to trial, but during all this time <b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">the accused were put to death, and their properties seized without due trial</span></u></b> and examination.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Later, this murdering devil ordered these officials and the municipal Prefect to deal with all criminal charges on equal terms: telling them to vie with each other to see which of them could destroy the most people in the shortest time. And one of them asked him at once, they say, "If somebody is sometime denounced before all three of us, which of us shall have jurisdiction over the case?" Whereupon he replied, "Whichever of you acts faster than the rest."</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Thus shamelessly he debased the Quaestor's office, which former emperors almost without exception had held in high regard, taking care that the men they appointed to it were experienced and wise, law-abiding, and uncorruptible by bribes; since otherwise it would be a calamity to the state, if men holding this high office were ignorant or avaricious.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">But the first man that this Emperor appointed to the office was Tribonian, whose actions I have fully related elsewhere. And when Tribonian departed from this world, Justinian seized a portion of his estate, though a son and many other children were left destitute when the fellow ended the final day of his life. Junilus, a Libyan, was next appointed to this office: a man who had never even heard the law, for he was not a rhetorician; he knew the Latin letters, but as far as Greek went, he had never even gone to school, and was unable to speak the language. Frequently when he tried to say a Greek word, he was laughed at by his servants. And he was so damned greedy for base gain, that he thought nothing of publicly selling the Emperor's decrees. For one gold coin he would hold out his palm to anybody without hesitation. And for not less than seven years' time the State shared the ridicule earned by this petty grafter.</span></p><p><span class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; line-height: 16px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">When Junilus completed the measure of his life, Constantine was appointed Quaestor: a man not unacquainted with law, but exceeding young, and without actual experience in court; and the most thievish bully among men. Of this person Justinian was very fond, and became his bosom friend, since through him <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Emperor saw he could steal</u></b> and run the office as he wished. Consequently, Constantine had great wealth in a short time, and assumed an air of prodigious pomp, with his nose in the clouds despising all men; and even those who wanted to offer him large bribes had to entrust them to those who were in his special confidence, to offer him together with their requests; for it was never possible to meet or talk with him, except when he was running to the Emperor or had just left him, and even then he trotted by in a great hurry, lest his time be wasted by somebody who had no money to give him. This is what the Emperor did to the quaestorship.</span></span></p><p><a href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/procop-anec.asp" target="_blank"><br /></a></p><p><a href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/procop-anec.asp" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Procopius of Caesarea</span></a><br /></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBm0M1FDVJWD5keKQa0YJLMfOdxjyLMPKHmQOBZg9awWI9m3KBzLTjHIb9hG_VIEk9QELP-ZfpAilNm8WDg_aJnWeAMDnIX7tF0lvIJhTV_6-4fruRnPqaONgePR7-dXghH6NJsJxg6em7A-UlFVpXho_XsGpSLJirb_ZTu-sov4k4hlVpVQ5NvjO7B44/s643/minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="643" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBm0M1FDVJWD5keKQa0YJLMfOdxjyLMPKHmQOBZg9awWI9m3KBzLTjHIb9hG_VIEk9QELP-ZfpAilNm8WDg_aJnWeAMDnIX7tF0lvIJhTV_6-4fruRnPqaONgePR7-dXghH6NJsJxg6em7A-UlFVpXho_XsGpSLJirb_ZTu-sov4k4hlVpVQ5NvjO7B44/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">A </span><b style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quaestor</i></span></b><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> (</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">"investigator")</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> was a public official in ancient</span> Rome<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">. There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">From 440 onward, the office of the quaestor worked in conjunction with the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefect_of_the_East" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); overflow-wrap: break-word; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Praetorian prefect of the East">praetorian prefect of the East</a><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> to oversee the supreme tribunal, or supreme court, at </span>Constantinople<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">. There, they heard appeals from the various subordinate courts and governors.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Emperor </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Justinian I"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Justinian I</span></a><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">also created the offices</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><i style="text-align: start;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quaesitor</i></span></i><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, a judicial and police official for</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Constantinople</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, and</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><i style="text-align: start;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quaestor exercitus</i></span></i><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">(quaestor of the army), a short-lived joint military-administrative post covering the border of the lower</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Danube</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">. The</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><i style="text-align: start;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quaestor sacri palatii</i></span></i><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">survived long into the</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Byzantine Empire</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, although its duties were altered to match the</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><i style="text-align: start;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quaesitor</i></span></i><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">by the 9th century AD, who was a judicial officer in charge of resolving various disputes.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The office survived into the 14th century as a purely honorific title.</span></p></div><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-76954532767300767062023-07-12T09:52:00.000-07:002023-07-12T09:52:21.147-07:00The Surrender of Alexandria - The Battle for Africa<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh69mRCemLd558-8kkmh8bgWrvGhz-sQkZR_693UB0-oDAEWUUIYBAz4VQRnY6ixzaTko7zvz9TCS9c2M2K5K5TOJWMNHVVfIGwrIPjaWXUoiyL-gHwcO-SG508Zz2HkmyORLo7_WsbHiPxqjEi9lomi-zLwA13D67fg62oAX-EdUx1guSvxqiPnAfO/s614/Minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="614" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh69mRCemLd558-8kkmh8bgWrvGhz-sQkZR_693UB0-oDAEWUUIYBAz4VQRnY6ixzaTko7zvz9TCS9c2M2K5K5TOJWMNHVVfIGwrIPjaWXUoiyL-gHwcO-SG508Zz2HkmyORLo7_WsbHiPxqjEi9lomi-zLwA13D67fg62oAX-EdUx1guSvxqiPnAfO/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><b><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">The Lighthouse of Alexandria</span></u></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The Lighthouse was badly damaged in the earthquake of 956, and then again in 1303 and 1323. The two earthquakes in 1303 and 1323 damaged the lighthouse to the extent that the Moroccan </span>traveler<span style="font-family: inherit;"> Ibn Battuta reported no longer being able to enter the ruin, when he visited it in 1349 AD. Finally the stubby remnant disappeared in 1480, when the then-Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay, built a medieval fort on the larger platform of the lighthouse site using some of the fallen stone.</span></span></span></div><br /><p><br /></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The Death of the Ancient World</u></b></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">The Beginning of the End </span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">for Roman Africa,<span style="color: #222222;"> </span><span style="color: red;">Part III</span></span></u></b></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">If we had to pick a date for the fall of the ancient world I think September, 642 AD is as good as any. In that month the traitorous elements in the Roman Government surrendered the great fortress city of Alexandria to the Muslim invaders ending over 600 years of Roman rule and ending a local culture that dated back to 3150BC.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Alexandria was crucial to maintaining Imperial Roman control over the region, based on its large Greco-Egyptian population and economic importance. The population of Alexandria was heavily influenced by both the cultural and religious views of their Roman rulers; nevertheless, the rural population spoke Coptic, rather than Greek, which was more common in the coastal cities.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Romans relied on Egypt as the main center of food production for wheat and other foodstuffs. Alexandria also functioned as one of Rome's primary army and naval bases, as there was normally a significant imperial garrison stationed in the city.</span></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">A R</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">eign of Terror</span></span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">When the Arabs invaded they faced a divided Roman Empire. The Emperor </span>Heraclius<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> had appointed </span>Cyrus<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> as both the Chalcedonian </span>Patriarch of Alexandria<span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif"><span> (who was unrecognized by the Egyptians) and the </span></span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Roman_Egypt" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="List of governors of Roman Egypt"><i>praefectus Aegypti</i></a><span><span face="sans-serif"><span><span style="background-color: white;">. Cyrus began a ten-year-long reign of terror in an attempt to bring the Egyptians to Chalcedonianism, forcing them to pray in secret and </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">torturing many to death.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif"><span>The </span></span></span>Coptic Pope<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">, </span>Pope Benjamin I<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">, was in hiding throughout this, and ruthlessly but unsuccessfully pursued by Cyrus.</span></span></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijk1faIH8unwStv6rtrBuFD0hrkxp1qVyeICGaHW3W8Cwx7zhFc2GOovoZQUpZQNGwjypksL4wYnPys9Sw612C2XvBXP44THR_1cvSxotIHQtBlgibULPbamCjR0x2U2g9yU5ckoCxQUs1cMhPYSvqCtUaD2gvQs8fA-Cu2XjPvZq0lKdfnYDZSaMs/s541/Minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="541" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijk1faIH8unwStv6rtrBuFD0hrkxp1qVyeICGaHW3W8Cwx7zhFc2GOovoZQUpZQNGwjypksL4wYnPys9Sw612C2XvBXP44THR_1cvSxotIHQtBlgibULPbamCjR0x2U2g9yU5ckoCxQUs1cMhPYSvqCtUaD2gvQs8fA-Cu2XjPvZq0lKdfnYDZSaMs/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Map of the Middle East on the eve of the Muslim invasions.</b></span></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhbTh6xgr2CMRPmjrEBydiQtSOWRtoUFmfIg-gfNUBnaDAi1eSRWly_6Pe-YVbFNuyW7NBWO_ThKIjvgQaDZHra8HX6pJpKw2z1dV6XwitY0f9_m00VFAZL9n4-67SGQmPDvCBNCbotngOCPaYE9V1alyTzFkA65QoGqMNeEKWYwrlm-tubm6KRmKI/s667/Minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="667" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhbTh6xgr2CMRPmjrEBydiQtSOWRtoUFmfIg-gfNUBnaDAi1eSRWly_6Pe-YVbFNuyW7NBWO_ThKIjvgQaDZHra8HX6pJpKw2z1dV6XwitY0f9_m00VFAZL9n4-67SGQmPDvCBNCbotngOCPaYE9V1alyTzFkA65QoGqMNeEKWYwrlm-tubm6KRmKI/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: white;">Roman-Byzantine reenactor </span><span class="userContent" style="background-color: white;">infantryman </span><span class="userContent" style="background-color: white;">from the age Justinian. The Roman </span><span class="userContent" style="background-color: white;">infantry facing the Arabs 100 years later might have looked much like this soldier.</span></b></span><span class="userContent" face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: small;"> </span></div><br /><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">The March to Alexandria</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The striking thing about the entire Arab invasion of Egypt was that Roman forces were scattered all over the country and were defeated one by one. It is what I have said for years, <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">most "generals" are worthless bureaucrats</u></b> who are vaguely aware they should point their army in the general direction of the enemy first before attacking.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The Romans had already seen the lightning fast Arab attacks in Syria and Palestine. Though it goes against the grain to give up land to an enemy, like the Russians in 1812, the smart move would have been to fall back and not engage. Rather to gather all Roman troops behind the walls of Alexandria. </span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The Arabs had no siege equipment to attack a huge walled city. Once inside the city the Romans would be standing shoulder to shoulder with their entire army. They would be invulnerable to any meaningful attack and could be endlessly re-supplied by the entire Roman Navy.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The Arabs would have been blocked from advancing. If they tried to march up the Libyan coast they would have been caught in a vice between the Roman Army in Carthage and Libya and the garrison in Alexandria.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">Once the Arabs had run out of steam, and the Roman army had been reinforced, the Romans could have advanced out of Alexandria and started to retake Egyptian provinces.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">Sadly, this was not to be, and Rome lost Egypt and all of North Africa as a result.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMGFGSYom9XMPZWxJxJiQJUrAgGqKS0-izLPjYIf78t7W50P5xUjA4SDRJgkeIoQDIXO3z1RVG8n71-T6oOBwsEojwegj6GV_dnynyxgeV5JQWCxc_nTHIW_mzPA9Mq2kcPOvpzCNFDhL7gM9bd1VSKBJ16KlyXhplqqzQzQghGPOxnlKEZ0jUZxbi/s1013/11alexandria%203.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="633" data-original-width="1013" height="250" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMGFGSYom9XMPZWxJxJiQJUrAgGqKS0-izLPjYIf78t7W50P5xUjA4SDRJgkeIoQDIXO3z1RVG8n71-T6oOBwsEojwegj6GV_dnynyxgeV5JQWCxc_nTHIW_mzPA9Mq2kcPOvpzCNFDhL7gM9bd1VSKBJ16KlyXhplqqzQzQghGPOxnlKEZ0jUZxbi/w400-h250/11alexandria%203.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Click to enlarge</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">The Alexandria Campaign</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white;">Map from </span><i style="background-color: white;">The Great Arab Conquests</i><span style="background-color: white;"> by General Sir John Bagot Glubb</span></span></div><br /><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Muslim commander Amr ibn al Aasi started moving north from the captured fortress of Babylon.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A skirmish with the Romans took place 40 miles to the north of Babylon at Tarrana. The Romans were driven back after a sharp engagement. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Ten miles further on the Arabs found themselves opposite the fortress and city of Nikiou which lay on the east bank of the Nile. The Arabs were obliged to cross the river in order to attack it. An active and enterprising commander might have sallied from the town and disrupted the river crossing or attacked the Arabs when they were halfway across defeating them. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Instead, <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">panic seized the garrison</u></b> which evacuated the city in confusion and scrambled into boats and escape down river. The Arabs rushed to attack killing many Roman soldiers on the shore and in the water.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The city which was surrounded with fortifications was left undefended. The Arabs entered the city putting many of the inhabitants to the sword. This <b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">massacre</span></u></b> took place on May 13, 641. They then raided surrounding villages, killing and plundering indiscriminately. It is probable that is action was taken as a deliberate act of policy to terrorize the local population that vastly outnumbered the invaders. If the locals rose up the Arab's communication lines with Babylon would be cut.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Arabs were able to capture numerous places like Nikiou. These places were also <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">deliberately plundered and the people massacred. </u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">It should be noted that in attacking Babylon the Arabs attacked Romans . . . that is to say the Orthodox Church Party. But the attacks around Nikiou were directed against the Copts, the native born Egyptians who were the victims of Roman persecutions.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">After a few days in Nikiou, Amr ibn al Aasi resumed his march on Alexandria. A few miles to the north his advanced guard encountered a considerable Roman army and was severely handled. The Arabs were forced to flee and take refuge on some high ground where they were virtually surrounded. Amr hastened up with the main body and drove the Romans back. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Roman force was the remaining field army, commanded by Theodore, from the defeat at Heliopolis the year before.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Reinforcements had arrived from Constantinople. A few miles north of Damanhour another battle took place with The Romans eventually withdrawing. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">At Kariun, Theodore took up a defensive position and very heavy fighting followed. One historian noted that the <b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">Copts and the Greeks had joined forces</span></u></b> against the Muslims. The Arab massacres convinced the Copts that they had nothing to gain from changing Masters.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The Battle of Kariun lasted for ten days.</u></b> </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">This was a slugfest battle of attrition, not one of swift movement or flanking attacks. Even so, in July 641 Théodore marched his Roman troops in good order back behind the walls of Alexandria. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Romans did not flee the Arabs. It is worthy to note that the Arabs had <b>NO DESIRE</b> to attack the Romans as they redeployed into the city. To not attack a retreating foe means the Arabs feared additional battle.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDdfz61VfjDZnzTzDNymXVWkOJfLHSalr1SUv_2eJHod_dx3-yTySherDW-kTbBNmjg16T0tbm8XMxsBijm1IgGd2EAtNjglQuIuk95TyDKHki4tphsG_SCAf7fJLelH00MyXwlM6V6HHWhkIp8i097LraiUJIKKdDya7Dr2VQMRKUeqc_mjGzXEnU/s500/Minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="499" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDdfz61VfjDZnzTzDNymXVWkOJfLHSalr1SUv_2eJHod_dx3-yTySherDW-kTbBNmjg16T0tbm8XMxsBijm1IgGd2EAtNjglQuIuk95TyDKHki4tphsG_SCAf7fJLelH00MyXwlM6V6HHWhkIp8i097LraiUJIKKdDya7Dr2VQMRKUeqc_mjGzXEnU/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Colorized photo of a Bedouin warrior holding</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b> a spear / lance, late 1800s to early 1900s.</b></span></span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px;" /><a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/7881368075906521/?lp=true" style="background-color: white; color: #2288bb; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">(pinterest.com)</a></div><br /><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">The Siege of Alexandria</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Alexandria was one of the greatest cities in the world. Founded by Alexander the Great 1,000 years before, it contained well over one million people. Egypt was an immensely wealth country, and Alexandria had long been its capital. The lighthouse above the harbor was one of the seven wonders of the world. Once the granary of Imperial Rome, the Nile Delta now played the same part in the economy of Constantinople.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The whole of this massive city was <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">surrounded by massive walls and towers</u></b>, against which such missiles as the Arabs possessed were utterly ineffectual. One side of the city was defended by the sea and the Roman Navy. Also, the Arabs could not boast of a single ship. The Romans had total control. The landward side was protected by Lake Mareotis and by a number of canals. The result was the only unimpeded approach for an attack was on a comparatively narrow front from the east. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Following the withdrawal of the Romans into the city, Amr launched a hasty and ill-advised assault on the city walls, and was met with a bloody repulse. The Arabs were forced to withdraw to a distance out of range of the ballistae mounted on the ramparts where they pitched camp.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Amr appears to have appreciated his utter inability to take so great a fortress by storm. With the Romans in total control of the sea, <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Alexandria could have held out for years.</u></b> </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In 626 Constantinople itself has just withstood a siege from the Persian Army and<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> </span>Avars<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">, aided by large numbers of </span>allied Slavs<span face="sans-serif"><span style="background-color: white;">. H</span></span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">eavy siege equipment was used against Constantinople. Something the Arabs lacked. The result was a Roman victory.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In a few weeks the Nile River would start to rise. Amr had no interest in campaigning in a Delta filled with water. He left a largeish detachment southeast of the city to keep the Romans inside the city walls and prevent them from re-establishing their authority in the Delta. </span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">He then marched across the Delta eastward to Sakha and the down to Tuka and Damsis back to Babylon. All three towns were walled and had Roman garrisons which closed their gates as the Arabs approached. Unable to deal with masonry walls, the Muslims passed them by. The open countryside and villages were plundered and their crops burned. After this rather unsuccessful attempt to terrorize the Delta, Arm returned to Babylon. </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicnnmLdkY1bOkZ4jzX4OMTevYz-NC9xYvG4TJWmzoYDmXPJsROlZqXzRgchNfKRcWvP8QBpgkj-cRqZGyqwScrJhQSwk86VUKJPjaVlzBJ3IkUGuuhW7gc8IWSEB5tJFIzQMs4hkE4a6h0CAmwwMOl-otrJ9oHEnKr66z2XVS3UZo81XYTWIPe6PfLcuQ/s500/Minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="402" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicnnmLdkY1bOkZ4jzX4OMTevYz-NC9xYvG4TJWmzoYDmXPJsROlZqXzRgchNfKRcWvP8QBpgkj-cRqZGyqwScrJhQSwk86VUKJPjaVlzBJ3IkUGuuhW7gc8IWSEB5tJFIzQMs4hkE4a6h0CAmwwMOl-otrJ9oHEnKr66z2XVS3UZo81XYTWIPe6PfLcuQ/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Whenever possible the Arab campaigns avoided mountains and wetlands in favor of fighting in the open desert. The very wet Egyptian Delta with its many streams and canals made it difficult for the Arabs to move rapidly like they did in Syria.</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNNxYAGz-veN_P0dshF6NW887XPp2TeqwXO3Z0VJ8Q5ju0lXMNyJ96g2J8Oxc80VWddBDILH2plgfXjFAC6mDFDdzT4C8yJEyuuE58Ko3YOFxZLDXmGYphoxDZbGR7Ac80T282emkNVjTCMEzKNQXbKyAkTQwDRSYaHubU6PkBUOj3OtQ6w794NksL18s/s500/Minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="328" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNNxYAGz-veN_P0dshF6NW887XPp2TeqwXO3Z0VJ8Q5ju0lXMNyJ96g2J8Oxc80VWddBDILH2plgfXjFAC6mDFDdzT4C8yJEyuuE58Ko3YOFxZLDXmGYphoxDZbGR7Ac80T282emkNVjTCMEzKNQXbKyAkTQwDRSYaHubU6PkBUOj3OtQ6w794NksL18s/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><br /><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">The Campaign That Never Happened</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The unsuccessful terror attacks in the Delta illustrate that the Arabs were only really successful in the open countryside. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">British General John Bagot Glubb speculated on what the Romans might have done in Egypt. At this stage the Arabs could not fight in the Delta nor the Romans fight in the desert. He suggested that <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Romans should have remained on the defensive</u></b> and only defend the Delta within the irrigated and cultivated areas. The Romans should have worked immediately to fortify towns and villages beginning with those settlements at the edge of the desert border. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The locals in these towns should have been trained and armed to defend themselves assisted by small groups of regular soldiers here and there. Further back in central positions <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">mobile columns of Roman soldiers should have been positioned to rapidly respond</u></b> and repulse any Arab raids. The inhabitants in the front line could have been told to just hang on for 12 hours and reinforcements would arrive.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Arabs liked to travel and fight in the desert, but there is no food there. Arab forces depended on the cultivated areas for supplies. An energetic defense of the cultivated areas would have put great pressure on the Arabs for the very basics. Glubb felt this type of aggressive defense would buy time for the Romans to build up their field armies.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The problem with Glubb's idea is it required a loyal local population. Though the Egyptian Copts were starting to turn against the Muslims, there was no love for the Greek speaking population in the cities nor any love for their Greek speaking armies.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">So we are back to my original idea above that all Roman troops should have redeployed into Alexandria where they could hold out for years.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMKTV09avV1mszQChQpjhlKtWeSP7x9U7wNF-19t1u15d9qcNm8agLdM7aNgWsr77bzTOi9jf2C8S813Mg9KiQqj3iDSRqX3l94R2feJwFCDBFdhp9r347W7-t9DJ60qRj-ENxk9mpmlOwD_lTxj1jeGRatTmc3f_DTzhKSMpfcyskPRjR12d4zI4GnZQ/s495/minds1.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="339" data-original-width="495" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMKTV09avV1mszQChQpjhlKtWeSP7x9U7wNF-19t1u15d9qcNm8agLdM7aNgWsr77bzTOi9jf2C8S813Mg9KiQqj3iDSRqX3l94R2feJwFCDBFdhp9r347W7-t9DJ60qRj-ENxk9mpmlOwD_lTxj1jeGRatTmc3f_DTzhKSMpfcyskPRjR12d4zI4GnZQ/s16000/minds1.PNG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Late Roman Empire Cavalry</span></u></b></span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px;" /><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>The basic look of the Roman cavalry during the Arab invasions would have not changed all that much. The heavy <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataphract" style="text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">Cataphract</a> units would have more armor and other units would have less for better mobility. The armored cavalry would act as the mailed fist of any Roman field army.</b></span></span><br /></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr0SoymGafQmKNdjNS_Qatlo7ku1TeF5fY0HyrDtEp7rqgkxNgf-IXO52z_41l8aMY0mwjpPSFsX-wUI_BcU8i-IYmPuGTyIxJyW2AKSbTyYWcM33cc5gv_24Cfh-ZXgILy-A9DPNPgZKwJrBGLIzNuh0KWuoKiVrjbYiLS5XVm7Ib4q0svsV8S1qjQBk/s450/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="448" data-original-width="450" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr0SoymGafQmKNdjNS_Qatlo7ku1TeF5fY0HyrDtEp7rqgkxNgf-IXO52z_41l8aMY0mwjpPSFsX-wUI_BcU8i-IYmPuGTyIxJyW2AKSbTyYWcM33cc5gv_24Cfh-ZXgILy-A9DPNPgZKwJrBGLIzNuh0KWuoKiVrjbYiLS5XVm7Ib4q0svsV8S1qjQBk/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><i style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" style="background: none; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Solidus (coin)">Solidus</a></i><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"> of Heraclius Constantine (right) </span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa;">with his father </span>Heraclius<span style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"> (left)</span></b></span></div><p><br /></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Anarchy in Constantinople</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The great general and Emperor Heraclius died in February, 641 in the middle of the Battle for Egypt. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Before his death Heraclius was preparing reinforcements. He declared his intention to lead this force in person to reconquer Egypt. But the sick 66 year old Emperor was not the man he was when he crushed the Persian Empire years before in the 620s. How the Egyptian campaign would have turned out is interesting to speculate on.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">With the death of Heraclius there was soon <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">anarchy in the royal family.</u></b> Often called <span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">Constantine III, he was crowned co-emperor by his father on 22 January 613. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">Constantine became senior emperor when his father died on 11 February 641. But the new 29 year old Emperor</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> died of </span>tuberculosis,<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> ruling for only three months. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">Just to put a nail in the coffin of Roman Africa, before he died </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">Constantine III recalled from exile Cyrus to advise him on Egypt. As the </span><span>Patriarch of Alexandria, Cyrus had tortured and murdered Coptic Christians for ten years. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">No sooner was Constantine dead than Martina, the hated widow of Heraclius' incestuous marriage, caused her fifteen-year-old son Heracleonas to be proclaimed sole Emperor. But Constantine had left two young sons. The eldest Constans was twelve years old. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Senate in Constantinople sided against Martina and the population rose in revolt. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Valentine, the commander of the army in Asia Minor, marched on Constantinople and forcibly crowned Constans as co-emperor.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The Empire was briefly "ruled" by a set of <span style="color: red;">15 and 12 year old Emperors</span>.</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">The rule of Martina and her sons was brief. The historian </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">Theophanes states they were ousted by the Senate, and there is some evidence to suggest that the Senate acted following riots instigated by the aristocratic </span>Blue faction<span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> A seventh-century inscription found in the walls of Byzantium references the role that the Blues had within this insurrection, saying "The fortune of Constantine our God-protected ruler and of the Blues is victorious."</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The sources all report that some manner of the </span>Byzantine practice of mutilating defeated enemies<span style="background-color: white;"> to prevent them from reclaiming the throne was undertaken at the defeat of Martina and her sons,</span><span style="background-color: white;"> possibly the first time such occurred,</span><span style="background-color: white;"> although they disagree on the exact nature of these mutilations. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Theophanes says that </span><span style="background-color: white;">the tongue of Martina and the nose of Heraclonas were cut off.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> John of Nikiû reports that Theodore "had Martina and her three sons, Heraclius, David, and Martinus, escorted forth with insolence, and he stripped them of the imperial crown, and he had their noses cut off, and he sent them in exile to </span>Rhodes<span style="background-color: white;">" in 642.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">This left a 12 year old on the Roman throne.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhv1R9StPVy5unFKdoMY5PgIeAILKMJK6OktLfAI3udHphj1dhRfKSNiR0lWkziNrxX1fY87c5tiW7FvQjmOdkHTDOgzVrBFwBR3xZJj8ZfrT0L4LiPzcj40rSntEOTckby3AxC6jGAaqx6VVw_7fINxbH_YBeBqW2rkzJ0iK6DZ2V0yVOr0qBshKJpUM8/s500/minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="308" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhv1R9StPVy5unFKdoMY5PgIeAILKMJK6OktLfAI3udHphj1dhRfKSNiR0lWkziNrxX1fY87c5tiW7FvQjmOdkHTDOgzVrBFwBR3xZJj8ZfrT0L4LiPzcj40rSntEOTckby3AxC6jGAaqx6VVw_7fINxbH_YBeBqW2rkzJ0iK6DZ2V0yVOr0qBshKJpUM8/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><br /><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Treason at the Highest Levels</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Heraclius committed his adult life to saving the Roman Empire, first against the Persians and then against the Muslim Arab invasions.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The child "Emperors" had no clue what to do. The puppet masters of the child Emperors appeared eager to give away Roman North Africa as long as they could protect their money and power in Constantinople. To me this was <b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">treason</span></u></b>.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Once Constantine died, Martina sent Cyrus back to Egypt. Martina was engrossed in the palace intrigues to place her son on the throne, and we can assume she was anxious to terminate the war with the Arabs and surrender Egypt.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The spineless Cyrus was good for <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">murdering and torturing Egyptian Copts</u></b> but not much else. He eagerly persuaded both Martina and the young Heracleonas of the necessity of surrender. He pressed for surrender so energetically that it went beyond mere execution of his official instructions.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Meanwhile violence broke out in Alexandria. The reinforcements sent by Constantinople were divided against each other, some supporting the claims of Martina and some the claims of the sons of Constantine. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Soon conflicts broke out in the streets of Alexandria between supporters of the two factions. The Blue and Green circus factions in Constantinople were also represented in Alexandria and backed those fighting in the streets. Looting and arson was rampant in the city.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCde0D6nNmv4V6N9yyF7jUl44RmDKEfyKBY3XP559bjsoChTsdf5rIQv9u_X7QY7ZNWvmmyQ8dKVzWVeJfmM9UhhacpcrgIbvRCvWY72YMTp1npJ4xhBeig7C-UEQmsUzXDSZt8o28_VtMXVkPxk4Uyd9VUAb0Xx9V5C6k4JSiJUMyZQVoaXoJhSJ3/s1920/11Byzantine%20650.webp" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1080" data-original-width="1920" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCde0D6nNmv4V6N9yyF7jUl44RmDKEfyKBY3XP559bjsoChTsdf5rIQv9u_X7QY7ZNWvmmyQ8dKVzWVeJfmM9UhhacpcrgIbvRCvWY72YMTp1npJ4xhBeig7C-UEQmsUzXDSZt8o28_VtMXVkPxk4Uyd9VUAb0Xx9V5C6k4JSiJUMyZQVoaXoJhSJ3/w400-h225/11Byzantine%20650.webp" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click to enlarge</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">The Roman Empire in 650AD</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">After the Conquest of Egypt</span></b></div><br /><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Having been reappointed Patriarch and Imperial Governor of Egypt, Cyrus landed in Alexandria on September 14, 641. He was greeted with great popular enthusiasm by the mostly Greek Orthodox population of the city. With the Muslims outside the walls and factional fighting in the streets, the people hoped for stability and security. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Little did they know that <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Cyrus had come back not to defend the people but to abandon them.</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In October, 641 Cyrus set out for Babylon to meet Amr ibn al Aasi with the intention of surrendering Alexandria and all of Egypt. He had apparently not told anyone in Alexandria his intentions. The people still believed he was there to save them.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Had Cyrus received authority from the Emperor to surrender? If so from which Emperor did he get his authority: the 15 year old Heracleonas? or the 12 year old Constans? or from the incestuous and intriguing Emperess Martina?</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Amr had returned to the fortress of Babylon after a rather unsuccessful campaign through the northern Delta leaving Egypt half conquered. If the aged Heraclius had lived long enough to carry out his plan of personally commanding an army in Egypt then resistance might have been prolonged indefinitely.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">As it is, on November 8, 641 Cyrus signed an agreement with Amr to <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">surrender all of Egypt.</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The treaty stipulated that the people of Egypt pay a tax of two dinars per man and that Christians and Jews be allowed to freely worship. An armistice was to last for 11 months until September 642. During this period the Arabs would not attack Alexandria, and the Roman army would evacuate the city by sea taking its possession with it. The Romans promised never to return to Egypt.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">When the populace of heard of the surrender, the people were seized with furious indignation. Mobs of people ran through the city streets to the palace with the object of <u><b><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">lynching the Patriarch</span></b></u>. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">For a short time Cyrus was in imminent danger. Cyrus persuaded his critics that surrender actually saved their lives.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Meanwhile the treaty was ratified by the child Emperor Heracleonas in Constantinople. This was one of his last acts. In November 641 he was overthrown in a military coup d'état carried out by the supporters of Constans. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Empress Martina had her tongue amputated, Emperor Heracleonas had his nose cut off</u></b> and they were driven into exile.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Despite of the surrender, many Roman garrisons in the Delta refused to open their gates to the Muslims. Even though they were abandoned by Constantinople, it took the Arabs till July 642 to subdue the Delta.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">In September 642 Alexandria opened its gates to the Muslims even though the city had never been breeched during the so-called "</span>siege<span style="font-family: inherit;">". Some 600 years of Roman control of Egypt was terminated.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0J4fI-gMAyh-ErUEn8jh90iLutgVjiABGy8aSNqv4di9WBUk96ECa52_qvbqGLQSer-rAqn6QWHyKWFretnBOn1jHhOYnUAv9GYcsrBNSUytUvPzW6bdONr7J7M6g2cuEh900H61SW5AqgJVzhk7RmZevf3cRlOAH-Rn6n37mZKFhqNyKiWTdPa78dcQ/s674/minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="674" data-original-width="457" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0J4fI-gMAyh-ErUEn8jh90iLutgVjiABGy8aSNqv4di9WBUk96ECa52_qvbqGLQSer-rAqn6QWHyKWFretnBOn1jHhOYnUAv9GYcsrBNSUytUvPzW6bdONr7J7M6g2cuEh900H61SW5AqgJVzhk7RmZevf3cRlOAH-Rn6n37mZKFhqNyKiWTdPa78dcQ/s16000/minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Lieutenant-General </span><b style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.4px; text-align: start;">Sir John Bagot Glubb</b><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white;">KCB</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white;">CMG</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white;">DSO</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white;">OBE</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white;">MC</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: small;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="text-align: center;">As far as I am concerned Glubb Pasha's 1964 book </span><i style="text-align: center;">The Great Arab Conquests</i><span style="text-align: center;"> is the Holy Grail on the </span><span style="text-align: center;">Arab invasions. </span></span><br style="background-color: white; text-align: start;" /><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"></span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="text-align: center;">Glubb was fluent in Arabic and able to read the original </span><span style="text-align: center;">documents. In addition he was commander of the British Arab Legion </span><span style="text-align: center;">and personally campaigned on the very ground the Romans and </span><span style="text-align: center;">Muslims fought over. Because the "history" of the early invasions is a jumbled mess I have been using Glubb Pasha's dates and timeline for events.</span></span></span></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.amazon.com/great-Arab-conquests-Bagot-Glubb/dp/1566196809" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">(The Great Arab Conquests)</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Alexandria_(641)" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">(Siege of Alexandria 641)</span></a></p><p><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclius_Constantine" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">(Heraclius Constantine)</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_(son_of_Heraclius)" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">(David, son of Heraclius)</span></a></span></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-25680580009966084292023-04-14T22:05:00.002-07:002023-04-14T22:05:42.089-07:00No Man's Land 2023, photshoot with Mike South Photography<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYSIyynVIAfgfQwqtCc8_ug6RZxzbgkdbRtoiPWQX1rXxfihHX6zIBSU0FnTAMh1-S18hDe-4su_Af6823fuVDyPQM3R3EtX4K4pcocrSv1yj-xrayVcfzJBZ2tiwHq1kv27l9sLRufRX8R0ab0Z5LWbBYSltbS8BD27v2xmvwAQjDdyQ5e_2PghHU/s625/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="625" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYSIyynVIAfgfQwqtCc8_ug6RZxzbgkdbRtoiPWQX1rXxfihHX6zIBSU0FnTAMh1-S18hDe-4su_Af6823fuVDyPQM3R3EtX4K4pcocrSv1yj-xrayVcfzJBZ2tiwHq1kv27l9sLRufRX8R0ab0Z5LWbBYSltbS8BD27v2xmvwAQjDdyQ5e_2PghHU/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group member Matthew Richardson dressed as the Magister Equitum</span></span></div><div><br /></div><br /><p><span style="background-color: white; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Photos are from the Magister Militum Facebook page. They are a re-enactment group focusing on recreating Roman soldiers of the 4th Century AD. </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">In the case of this blog it would apply the very early Eastern Empire.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Reenactors are a special kind of crazy. Their devotion to a tiny slice of history is incredible, and the depth of their knowledge is staggering.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: #050505;">Go to </span><a href="https://www.facebook.com/magistermilitumreenactment" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Magister Militum</span></a></span></span></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjF_61BxcmRzBNZVGp5ukAve_LtCKRM-Iqx0r4A1pEXkL2pzx6J-kHp5o4_P_Out3sWbJGpd70E9rY_oxP9ebCzWha0mrq6B8Q0UXj4L4m0zVtX3O6aQdla1ER_OkU5ZwQh0OR-kW3FUlZfalnRZCvpsHVYO3qu_pqO_P9L4SU00Dw_2EUUHLGhRexE/s500/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjF_61BxcmRzBNZVGp5ukAve_LtCKRM-Iqx0r4A1pEXkL2pzx6J-kHp5o4_P_Out3sWbJGpd70E9rY_oxP9ebCzWha0mrq6B8Q0UXj4L4m0zVtX3O6aQdla1ER_OkU5ZwQh0OR-kW3FUlZfalnRZCvpsHVYO3qu_pqO_P9L4SU00Dw_2EUUHLGhRexE/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Fantastic group shot of a one-section phalanx</span></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir-WjHHMkVLovLCeehzGxZNez1G6V0EwDwTPH5or8aBaJb1xK70qfgOWwF4aAZ9-7yILis83FbFjQ5Zt2amdLDQF5vkmGia7xAHRD5-uA1F6G6zTaa9oZH0aox97LT-LMob-c2JwBU655sOYPENE-gSgK6--Ebk8bx81ngEi-WDgFAe_yLdxXwPeOz/s750/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="750" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir-WjHHMkVLovLCeehzGxZNez1G6V0EwDwTPH5or8aBaJb1xK70qfgOWwF4aAZ9-7yILis83FbFjQ5Zt2amdLDQF5vkmGia7xAHRD5-uA1F6G6zTaa9oZH0aox97LT-LMob-c2JwBU655sOYPENE-gSgK6--Ebk8bx81ngEi-WDgFAe_yLdxXwPeOz/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group member Daniel Kerr dressed as a veteran legionary</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwXxzwCg5f-Ag-i8WsSzXjFgRBQFGsMVevjWodFid4B4je-ZI0Lq9-L1PAfcfsYxFID17zwsheix1bQulLzzmrZFI-VfPpXZQJ2TCITDxPLfhhP4C7KoKIgLWMCY1WWPJMkVqmCQhBrKBmV6gz0OBYiKGHS-BCGd8KTnU8uP525wn2RMsTjgTmO5d6/s753/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="753" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwXxzwCg5f-Ag-i8WsSzXjFgRBQFGsMVevjWodFid4B4je-ZI0Lq9-L1PAfcfsYxFID17zwsheix1bQulLzzmrZFI-VfPpXZQJ2TCITDxPLfhhP4C7KoKIgLWMCY1WWPJMkVqmCQhBrKBmV6gz0OBYiKGHS-BCGd8KTnU8uP525wn2RMsTjgTmO5d6/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group member Ross Cronshaw dressed as the Magister Militum</span></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieB0kggWWNfWfXLj6LVVxEmW0hjwoJvMqh_Q10gcyzsdV27l5mQVN3FeEeC58Pm5M9dF4L1Fk3aTPPYWyWYabMFjrwJmbbWdAPpm96rlviYlu2wRHW8zukc03T7lcKBC7Ifk_6AaB429B7i10XLwj94qKxI4paCMbigUXlvqitj3YTNuj5jKZgfe1T/s500/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieB0kggWWNfWfXLj6LVVxEmW0hjwoJvMqh_Q10gcyzsdV27l5mQVN3FeEeC58Pm5M9dF4L1Fk3aTPPYWyWYabMFjrwJmbbWdAPpm96rlviYlu2wRHW8zukc03T7lcKBC7Ifk_6AaB429B7i10XLwj94qKxI4paCMbigUXlvqitj3YTNuj5jKZgfe1T/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group members Matthew Richardson and Tony Gilligan </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">relaxing in camp playing a Roman game</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAPOB0Wm_NTwZaI5C4afRv3l2c8Yp7I3GbwIyfGCpTPQBPjUCLs-EKSFlnD0CxtGGZOBTr_Z13Cee_2EaCvBNhSeyxgzvuxm7w5KY6zM-35PLVfFPuGLRQ2tQ-NZi1G8s9v18vbcoFrj4BHrKgtyii8ebcJ_pvOF25IIFrHO2O8jv1_vuPy0y3Y8u8/s752/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="752" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAPOB0Wm_NTwZaI5C4afRv3l2c8Yp7I3GbwIyfGCpTPQBPjUCLs-EKSFlnD0CxtGGZOBTr_Z13Cee_2EaCvBNhSeyxgzvuxm7w5KY6zM-35PLVfFPuGLRQ2tQ-NZi1G8s9v18vbcoFrj4BHrKgtyii8ebcJ_pvOF25IIFrHO2O8jv1_vuPy0y3Y8u8/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group member Daniel Kerr displaying the general panoply of a standard heavy infantry legionary, with large oval shiled, spear, sword, and throwing dart as well as full body armour</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjGxMtgWB5wqKOAyoPqm0mJyPPtzPc4kEOPUxz0H5HxGIt39yrlNesc4gXUI4PCHajIdHlx-zuTtYS0zG8r1R3x80wHULAiKq4J5M1vg0gbniRy3_62TtU7Zq1DeoGrkhW1yxjarty8J9HNUbsnYVayk8VEOxewStx3Jyn8AQb8pFQwqaos1AVyuR2/s750/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="750" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjGxMtgWB5wqKOAyoPqm0mJyPPtzPc4kEOPUxz0H5HxGIt39yrlNesc4gXUI4PCHajIdHlx-zuTtYS0zG8r1R3x80wHULAiKq4J5M1vg0gbniRy3_62TtU7Zq1DeoGrkhW1yxjarty8J9HNUbsnYVayk8VEOxewStx3Jyn8AQb8pFQwqaos1AVyuR2/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group member Callum Mieklem displaying the general panoply of an archer or light infantryman, with a shamm round shield, bow, and sword</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIu7Upm3CiUHofDvJ13yBOSL4VrbCpK7xkwxworYXePnXKQk1hbt--1FFLgj8Ej9fcmU5OJErg9BGOv9tO1kO75HKfEztANRd6qWA32gXsQZjiV4GNK1s-2P9KTIQJYelCIhJuCWQDiBlUD6NKj3CCcIdoovn0RtWdj2XDdB8wTr54uhn246wkQV4Z/s750/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="750" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIu7Upm3CiUHofDvJ13yBOSL4VrbCpK7xkwxworYXePnXKQk1hbt--1FFLgj8Ej9fcmU5OJErg9BGOv9tO1kO75HKfEztANRd6qWA32gXsQZjiV4GNK1s-2P9KTIQJYelCIhJuCWQDiBlUD6NKj3CCcIdoovn0RtWdj2XDdB8wTr54uhn246wkQV4Z/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group member Callum Mieklem displaying the general panoply of an archer or light infantryman, with a shamm round shield, bow, and sword</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9QTrccq0VcQHZikj21Ue8kkHng2QUH7IlZZHuDc27HWBqnwCvd5AspnEsQLQ92Mx7KxR3DfNLgiXnTh86SRNC05p1YDS3Xhvn6WGQLqJIe3bfCQ_0OX7SUcN1GgwonS46Vek3W6Btmm_FEW40UuDyR34U0_K0Vg_I54NbL28ha8O9Eu9tefZ3BNv7/s500/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9QTrccq0VcQHZikj21Ue8kkHng2QUH7IlZZHuDc27HWBqnwCvd5AspnEsQLQ92Mx7KxR3DfNLgiXnTh86SRNC05p1YDS3Xhvn6WGQLqJIe3bfCQ_0OX7SUcN1GgwonS46Vek3W6Btmm_FEW40UuDyR34U0_K0Vg_I54NbL28ha8O9Eu9tefZ3BNv7/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group member Daniel Kerr displaying the </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">equipment of a vexillarius standard bearer</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuR-nCZpBE9NVOOO6NdJzgwXIbCdxWANcq0cnEl6vdU7jSzc5JeZ6Qdf-qCi-HCR39rzmPaURdVKCP2hD3Wym5G1VGnljTaQsO4XFlFumja9GLkVA5CI4w6nIW_CEtnnsPaHHjPD1lemfUN4vTZZpqsxzcS_0aeKttW5Rg-1XB8FIX55Pu5RFpPky4/s696/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="696" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuR-nCZpBE9NVOOO6NdJzgwXIbCdxWANcq0cnEl6vdU7jSzc5JeZ6Qdf-qCi-HCR39rzmPaURdVKCP2hD3Wym5G1VGnljTaQsO4XFlFumja9GLkVA5CI4w6nIW_CEtnnsPaHHjPD1lemfUN4vTZZpqsxzcS_0aeKttW5Rg-1XB8FIX55Pu5RFpPky4/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A fun shoot imagining Tony Gilligan as a </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Conan-inspired emperor (Emperor Tonan)</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBjGpSxJM2jAbMAIOrgPlf2F1x77FXEJwBudB0l-LeLOM2lHOotGyzXYZzxad6dWVBhOVIbWmXuViDiAVdqC7Dd4gUPXzFgd5liBCZscH2vI_GDNiqw9uVv5tIq08z78rHjyMgyHuWwe04zbEhaS-p4wkDPgz5jPOrJ9I3aztRzqfGCiQOQJKa2ist/s500/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="400" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBjGpSxJM2jAbMAIOrgPlf2F1x77FXEJwBudB0l-LeLOM2lHOotGyzXYZzxad6dWVBhOVIbWmXuViDiAVdqC7Dd4gUPXzFgd5liBCZscH2vI_GDNiqw9uVv5tIq08z78rHjyMgyHuWwe04zbEhaS-p4wkDPgz5jPOrJ9I3aztRzqfGCiQOQJKa2ist/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdOvxdx-vUWGKf4WbEd9qtNhJK5M9TYH_Yuze1HST2mjJictKHM9yV209FjRd4Otvk9fYfEDaKmd6Xz0uhypMLvIwalamJmtyCvPWe7IRPi6hiwG4Aj9DntHJ6TADJNDQpBfEymudGynX8QXyycCdQpST-IctbB-RUFMmjnEMoFG6IHxE03MCV2W88/s761/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="761" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdOvxdx-vUWGKf4WbEd9qtNhJK5M9TYH_Yuze1HST2mjJictKHM9yV209FjRd4Otvk9fYfEDaKmd6Xz0uhypMLvIwalamJmtyCvPWe7IRPi6hiwG4Aj9DntHJ6TADJNDQpBfEymudGynX8QXyycCdQpST-IctbB-RUFMmjnEMoFG6IHxE03MCV2W88/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgw6YJqA6zdU8WQP5d__KYmuNrxVRFVWg3E1oNZN_QPaWM8xCGEZIbqRuu-vy5woM6vP1C9wf89N6AHlNsSvVZHwh2gvdzzCi_2QjtXiAPjtEOFF73DwWs4xD55uqwnncJVbcNnxC6JVhKVzy0lHF3Un26xOkBGOzfbI--QWiyLDIx-TEt-LlfbYW4g/s750/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="750" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgw6YJqA6zdU8WQP5d__KYmuNrxVRFVWg3E1oNZN_QPaWM8xCGEZIbqRuu-vy5woM6vP1C9wf89N6AHlNsSvVZHwh2gvdzzCi_2QjtXiAPjtEOFF73DwWs4xD55uqwnncJVbcNnxC6JVhKVzy0lHF3Un26xOkBGOzfbI--QWiyLDIx-TEt-LlfbYW4g/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Francis Hagan of The Barcarii, photograph courtesy of MJ WarTog</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTtciTckLO82RVpGIm-Ri67yFLkkuVdt1mc3KZCGO6IvRqAWNpWWhe1e5ebPiTox640Mq-uz8kpmf2WO6Oh-Yh_zbDuKhhwKFUMtFQmJQngEI2p5uuggGiwZUOQsWHbbs6jk9_27d2HuzdzciYZuMs0NrZtghtmiJrkNrRNiZg_dMNDWU_t2ZIfzEB/s752/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="752" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTtciTckLO82RVpGIm-Ri67yFLkkuVdt1mc3KZCGO6IvRqAWNpWWhe1e5ebPiTox640Mq-uz8kpmf2WO6Oh-Yh_zbDuKhhwKFUMtFQmJQngEI2p5uuggGiwZUOQsWHbbs6jk9_27d2HuzdzciYZuMs0NrZtghtmiJrkNrRNiZg_dMNDWU_t2ZIfzEB/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Group member Ross before the arena display, </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">photograph courtesy of Graham Sumner</span></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie5h6DcsLV8Wwi_IzmvczCF_nCjv9q2kMkCB-Mi-kbCc53mselVWTRIDMOWwJC-MErgBpljmVeU4sdAa6iSuD40rVD1OzPKmNWBqGl7QalyTpg8QI2JX1MY-aWECW46TaaSw_NdqBgMTmhnd2mjjbBN11NXqNPLwAMYAD_pOmZqkLF3d06SdRMA0_u/s500/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie5h6DcsLV8Wwi_IzmvczCF_nCjv9q2kMkCB-Mi-kbCc53mselVWTRIDMOWwJC-MErgBpljmVeU4sdAa6iSuD40rVD1OzPKmNWBqGl7QalyTpg8QI2JX1MY-aWECW46TaaSw_NdqBgMTmhnd2mjjbBN11NXqNPLwAMYAD_pOmZqkLF3d06SdRMA0_u/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Magister Militum on parade with VIII Legion Augusta and The Tungrians, photo courtesy of AMHJP Photography</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhS0gqvN2csact458WBvN9jsmqkBhnMnkXaRy3XHsV2YdKHuAgT1U8SMQ3MWUPMLkv4Z359-qG0NmSpN9bpceOCJoCxbDzF7B6C6lYyqxdtbx0wXUyMPpaCDfN44YQcIgKpoBPTD7oVfBN8us40rhRzLNg08dj4Xe5hpCsy0H2s_eaqNFzKrMzUusbh/s500/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhS0gqvN2csact458WBvN9jsmqkBhnMnkXaRy3XHsV2YdKHuAgT1U8SMQ3MWUPMLkv4Z359-qG0NmSpN9bpceOCJoCxbDzF7B6C6lYyqxdtbx0wXUyMPpaCDfN44YQcIgKpoBPTD7oVfBN8us40rhRzLNg08dj4Xe5hpCsy0H2s_eaqNFzKrMzUusbh/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The VIII demonstrate formations and drill, </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">photograph courtesy of Mike South Photography</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZVoeuTOlAwztLumVw_dbgN0_mIb0n8A_JyXF3glwCaejl58o75nohBOWa_yRmf_1kwPF88ZBwayUJueebGFlUZ6CW0qcdM0SnAApAV8tEs7_M4j2R6mXLUdN4FHtWmRFycA8c2l_-dprAUCiVnd6lzE0oHm8cWf0SMlRoKaR8eRVt7CDM1o0VggKi/s500/Minds1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="312" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZVoeuTOlAwztLumVw_dbgN0_mIb0n8A_JyXF3glwCaejl58o75nohBOWa_yRmf_1kwPF88ZBwayUJueebGFlUZ6CW0qcdM0SnAApAV8tEs7_M4j2R6mXLUdN4FHtWmRFycA8c2l_-dprAUCiVnd6lzE0oHm8cWf0SMlRoKaR8eRVt7CDM1o0VggKi/s16000/Minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The group at the end of day parade, </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">photo courtesy of AMHJP Photography</span></span></div><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-8476876491572614012023-03-01T15:30:00.000-08:002023-03-01T15:30:27.683-08:00Justinian & Theodora were Fiends in Human Form<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI9RdSkXE_JBBE09t2JLFwMsR0FUOvijviaU1C4e8U2hnaA9BYiR4DgjNyZVHcC4ryDqjVmXXS0nEdEV4fWD32g6IEebHcXEq9cGRRoI4z8bviyahCCqBJnCYfTZSgsEf3_dyM1Rug6Vw-qynCjTF9Q6QnKGX1djX3rN0ZNwGrUnzS8_jv3dBEvF3Z/s480/minds1.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="270" data-original-width="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI9RdSkXE_JBBE09t2JLFwMsR0FUOvijviaU1C4e8U2hnaA9BYiR4DgjNyZVHcC4ryDqjVmXXS0nEdEV4fWD32g6IEebHcXEq9cGRRoI4z8bviyahCCqBJnCYfTZSgsEf3_dyM1Rug6Vw-qynCjTF9Q6QnKGX1djX3rN0ZNwGrUnzS8_jv3dBEvF3Z/s16000/minds1.gif" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Emperor Justinian a Fiend?</u></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">Justinian's historian was there to see for himself what he viewed as an out of control Emperor. The endless wars, taxes, torture, murder and the stealing by the Emperor himself of everything not nailed down.</span></div><br /><div><br /></div><div><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b>By Procopius of Caesarea</b></span><br style="background-color: white;" /><span style="background-color: white;">500 - 554 AD</span><br style="background-color: white;" /><span style="background-color: white;"><i>The Secret History</i></span></span><br />
<br />
<p><span class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Now the wealth of those in Constantinople and each other city who were considered second in prosperity only to members of the Senate, was <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">brutally confiscated</u></b>, in the ways I have described, by Justinian and Theodora. But how they were able to rob even the Senate of all its property I shall now reveal.</span></span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">There was in Constantinople a man by the name of Zeno, grandson of that Anthamius who had formerly been Emperor of the West. This man they appointed, with malice aforethought, Governor of Egypt, and commanded his immediate departure. But he delayed his voyage long enough to load his ship with his most valuable effects; for he had a countless amount of silver and gold plate inlaid with pearls, emeralds and other such precious stones. Whereupon they bribed some of his most trusted servants to remove these valuables from the ship as fast as they could carry them, set fire to the interior of the vessel, and inform Zeno that his ship had burst into flames of spontaneous combustion, with the loss of all his property. Later, when Zeno died suddenly, they took possession of his estate immediately as his legal heirs; for they produced a will which, it is whispered, he did not really make.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In the same manner they made themselves heirs of Tatian, Demosthenes, and Hilara, who were foremost in the Roman Senate. And others' estates they obtained by <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">counterfeited letters instead of wills</u></b>. Thus they became heirs of Dionysius, who lived in Libanus, and of John the son of Basil, who was the most notable of the citizens of Edessa, and had been given as hostage, against his will, by Belisarius to the Persians: as I have recounted elsewhere. </span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">For Chosroes refused to let this John go, charging that the Romans had disregarded the terms of the truce, as a pledge of which John had been given him by Belisarius; and he said he would only give him up as a prisoner of war. So his father's mother, who was still living, got together a ransom not less than two thousand pounds of silver, and was ready to purchase her grandson's liberty. But when this money came to Dara, the Emperor heard of the bargain and forbade it: saying that Roman wealth must not be given to the barbarians. Not long after this, John fell ill and departed from this world, whereupon the Governor of the city forged a letter which, he said, John had written him as a friend not long before, to the effect that he wished his estate to go to the Emperor.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1h7CK3scLvczY9ATTDcwK2CPRipkaLxzH3AJznJK3odwyO6wvNAB-LQqZk0Cv1nzRseoHNHt39QKAbhA872fLpsc0xHIrUsrBqOapOP-OuAj0kJd7NnT2yR1n7wcq-EnrozoyygS3DvrqqayGf-qq9urwRGfGoQQyrBBML7Kx_iOjKxn8S0U49WSt/s400/minds1.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="222" data-original-width="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1h7CK3scLvczY9ATTDcwK2CPRipkaLxzH3AJznJK3odwyO6wvNAB-LQqZk0Cv1nzRseoHNHt39QKAbhA872fLpsc0xHIrUsrBqOapOP-OuAj0kJd7NnT2yR1n7wcq-EnrozoyygS3DvrqqayGf-qq9urwRGfGoQQyrBBML7Kx_iOjKxn8S0U49WSt/s16000/minds1.gif" /></a></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><p></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">I could hardly catalogue all the other people whose estates these two chose to inherit.</u></b> </span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">However, up to the time when the insurrection named Nika took place, they seized rich men's properties one at a time; but when that happened, as I have told elsewhere, <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">they sequestrated at one swoop the estates of nearly all the members of the Senate.</u></b> On everything movable and on the fairest of the lands they laid their hands and kept what they wanted; but whatever was unproductive of more than the bitter and heavy taxes, they gave back to the previous owners with a philanthropic gesture. Consequently these unfortunates, oppressed by the tax collectors and eaten up by the never-ceasing interest on their debts, found life a burden compared to which death were preferable.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Wherefore to me,- and many others of us, <span style="background-color: white;">these two seemed not to be human beings, but</span> <i style="background-color: #fcff01; font-weight: bold; text-decoration-line: underline;"><span style="color: red;">veritable demons</span></i><b style="background-color: #fcff01; text-decoration-line: underline;">, and what the poets call </b><i style="background-color: #fcff01; font-weight: bold; text-decoration-line: underline;"><span style="color: red;">vampires</span></i>: who laid their heads together to see how they could most easily and quickly destroy the race and deeds of men; and assuming human bodies, became man-demons, and so convulsed the world. And one could find evidence of this in many things, but especially in the superhuman power with which they worked their will.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">For when one examines closely, there is a clear difference between what is human and what is supernatural. There have been many enough men, during the whole course of history, who by chance or by nature have inspired great fear, ruining cities or countries or whatever else fell into their power; but to destroy all men and bring calamity on the whole inhabited earth remained for these two to accomplish, whom Fate aided in their schemes of corrupting all mankind. For by earthquakes, pestilences, and floods of river waters at this time came further ruin, as I shall presently show. Thus not by human, but by some other kind of power they accomplished their dreadful designs.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">And they say his mother said to some of her intimates once that not of Sabbatius her husband, nor of any man was Justinian a son. For when she was about to conceive, there visited a demon, invisible but giving evidence of his presence perceptibly where man consorts with woman, after which he vanished utterly as in a dream.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVcNbk0_b3BN4noRip39UUatG4GISTS8Z85kTubfBcnVqWXiLDp3Z2X5zhkYXdwhkUM5lSodsf5LrpNBf9aGLjAf81Mq1E9xxtnk6CHOyx3Ix_-FSXUYGvu9GgnbjsFG-nH03PFmsHpDu-9lNr-ptcT6Ti_mJeh1IZQfuN6mVc1nUed65Aw1FasFyx/s500/minds1.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVcNbk0_b3BN4noRip39UUatG4GISTS8Z85kTubfBcnVqWXiLDp3Z2X5zhkYXdwhkUM5lSodsf5LrpNBf9aGLjAf81Mq1E9xxtnk6CHOyx3Ix_-FSXUYGvu9GgnbjsFG-nH03PFmsHpDu-9lNr-ptcT6Ti_mJeh1IZQfuN6mVc1nUed65Aw1FasFyx/s16000/minds1.gif" /></a></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><p></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">And some of those who have been with Justinian at the palace late at night, men who were pure of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac form taking his place. One man said that the Emperor suddenly rose from his throne and walked about, and indeed he was never wont to remain sitting for long, and <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">immediately Justinian's head vanished, while the rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow</u></b>; whereat the beholder stood aghast and fearful, wondering if his eyes were deceiving him. But presently he perceived the vanished head filling out and joining the body again as strangely as it had left it.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Another said he stood beside the Emperor as he sat, and of a sudden the face changed into a shapeless mass of flesh, with neither eyebrows nor eyes in their proper places, nor any other distinguishing feature; and after a time the natural appearance of his countenance returned. I write these instances not as one who saw them myself, but heard them from men who were positive they had seen these strange occurrences at the time.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">They also say that a certain monk, very dear to God, at the instance of those who dwelt with him in the desert went to Constantinople to beg for mercy to his neighbors who had been outraged beyond endurance. And when he arrived there, he forthwith secured an audience with the Emperor; but just as he was about to enter his apartment, he stopped short as his feet were on the threshold, and suddenly stepped backward. Whereupon the eunuch escorting him, and others who were present, importuned him to go ahead. But he answered not a word; and like a man who has had a stroke staggered back to his lodging. And when some followed to ask why he acted thus, they say he distinctly declared <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">he saw the King of the Devils sitting on the throne in the palace</u></b>, and he did not care to meet or ask any favor of him.</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Indeed, how was this man likely to be anything but an evil spirit, who never knew honest satiety of drink or food or sleep, but only tasting at random from the meals that were set before him, roamed the palace at unseemly hours of the night, and was possessed by the quenchless lust of a demon?</span></p><p class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px; margin: 12px 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Furthermore some of Theodora's lovers, while she was on the stage, say that at night a demon would sometimes descend upon them and drive them from the room, so that it might spend the night with her. And there was a certain dancer named Macedonia, who belonged to the Blue party in Antioch, who came to possess much influence. For she used to write letters to Justinian while Justin was still Emperor, and so made away with whatever notable men in the East she had a grudge against, and had their property confiscated.</span></p><p><span class="H_body_text" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 16px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">This Macedonia, they say, greeted Theodora at the time of her arrival from Egypt and Libya; and when she saw her badly worried and cast down at the ill treatment she had received from Hecebolus and at the loss of her money during this adventure, she tried to encourage Theodora by reminding her of the laws of chance, by which she was likely again to be the leader of a chorus of coins. Then, they say, Theodora used to relate how on that very night a dream came to her, bidding her take no thought of money, for when she should come to Constantinople, <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">she should share the couch of the King of the Devils</u></b>, and that she should contrive to become his wedded wife and thereafter be the mistress of all the money in the world. And that this is what happened is the opinion of most people.</span></span></p>
<a href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.asp" target="_blank">(Fordham.edu)</a><br />
<br /><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9ArO3NdebvpnmknPimGpJmhHCZjOVB5WXWQ7a9KULfxwlj08BbJkRdPXXxRAsFQn8QPF5yL5E4CMiMPYA3BeUHbF0E1afP7WJBMN1PmHfgM_rD0I5XyVd2iroiybRq0iFvPxQctk-r_4dc5B94A7kFUxaBlzpb8KA-72RlLk-LM08RBNy3sc7uTbh/s990/minds5.webp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="990" data-original-width="960" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9ArO3NdebvpnmknPimGpJmhHCZjOVB5WXWQ7a9KULfxwlj08BbJkRdPXXxRAsFQn8QPF5yL5E4CMiMPYA3BeUHbF0E1afP7WJBMN1PmHfgM_rD0I5XyVd2iroiybRq0iFvPxQctk-r_4dc5B94A7kFUxaBlzpb8KA-72RlLk-LM08RBNy3sc7uTbh/w388-h400/minds5.webp" width="388" /></a></div>Facial recreations of Justinian and Theodora</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: IBMPlexSans, Arial, sans-serif; text-align: start;"><span style="color: white; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b>Fiends</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b>Deamons</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b>Murderers</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b>Great Rulers</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b>or All Four?</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">From childhood we are fed fairy tale type stories of Knights in shining armor and wise thoughtful Kings.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white;">Decide for yourself, but in my view many of these "wise" Kings murdered their way to power, and the Knights in shining armor were simply </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">hired thugs and killers</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> on the payroll of the Kings.</span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">That is my brutal view. As for Justinian, he may very well be the fiend described by Procopius. Perhaps not a supernatural fiend, but a monster none the less who would do anything to keep and grow his power.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; font-family: IBMPlexSans, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><div><br /></div>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-19316453428517481102023-01-09T15:52:00.002-08:002023-01-09T15:52:58.889-08:00Defender Of A Byzantine Fort Was Decapitated By The Ottomans<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMLGK1g96KboK19-DxIuBRLCxAyVnVFcfmvQ2wNnmeBnQF0libjzqq1i85zyJ5Zo7vhmdxsKj0AsuheB1MkSj7XcR_u0EeS1usd_bzwpAIi8t3fksAq1hqk7r7qLYKfI0r0ufgLwJwKQqgeMy7bq0UTiEaH4jyqXEtJGuTbagDyJpOgwufSI6aVVR1/s502/minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="502" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMLGK1g96KboK19-DxIuBRLCxAyVnVFcfmvQ2wNnmeBnQF0libjzqq1i85zyJ5Zo7vhmdxsKj0AsuheB1MkSj7XcR_u0EeS1usd_bzwpAIi8t3fksAq1hqk7r7qLYKfI0r0ufgLwJwKQqgeMy7bq0UTiEaH4jyqXEtJGuTbagDyJpOgwufSI6aVVR1/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">(Forbes) On the acropolis of ancient Abdera in western Thrace, within the fortress of Polystylon, archaeologists discovered a cemetery dating to the final throes of the battle between local Byzantine occupants and invading Ottoman Turks. A single decapitated skull found in the center of the burials may be evidence of the last human trophy head, removed from a defender of the fort.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;">In the early 1380s, residents of Polystylon made a stand against the Ottoman Turks encroaching upon their family land. </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">It was the last Byzantine stronghold that the Ottomans vanquished along the shores of western Thrace</u></b><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;">, after all its neighbors fell to the Turks. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;">During the final occupation of Polystylon, a large number of people perished and were buried inside the walls. About </span><b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">two-thirds were kids between the ages of 4 and 11</span></u></b><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;">, and almost all the rest were adult men. Although DNA work has not yet been completed, skeletal and dental variations on the bones show biological kinship. One sole female skeleton has been found in the Late Byzantine cemetery at Abdera, due either to the evacuation of women prior to the commencement of fighting or to their capture and removal during warfare.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">The cemetery within the fortification walls of Polystylon was discovered in 1991 and contained at least 20 graves, all of which were studied by Anagnostis Agelarakis, a bioarchaeologist at Adelphi University. One particular grave, that of a young child, was found nearly dead center in the cemetery. Rows of nails were all that remained of a simple wooden coffin. The child wore bronze beads that likely formed a bracelet around the left wrist and had every indication of healthy teeth and a good quality diet. Also found next to the child was a single human head, that of a middle-aged adult male.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdHJBPaW3vYHesbhtWOYFMZXGQRYP5uZJNe5Rml_h8Y2BaB2a24oCi1DqaqXsbkS5uNvOqxsKu-pE14T8WjjT4fArY0_LGr_CU9MxUPk0bmpBPDy2GJnKEt3oA47U_GnwO1edTbwWb0CIu6y8q1ffIhyVtNFylqKsZmmits_zNID7PFmidM7Oi4sEK/s500/minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="338" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdHJBPaW3vYHesbhtWOYFMZXGQRYP5uZJNe5Rml_h8Y2BaB2a24oCi1DqaqXsbkS5uNvOqxsKu-pE14T8WjjT4fArY0_LGr_CU9MxUPk0bmpBPDy2GJnKEt3oA47U_GnwO1edTbwWb0CIu6y8q1ffIhyVtNFylqKsZmmits_zNID7PFmidM7Oi4sEK/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><p aria-hidden="true" class="wp-caption-text" style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; display: inline; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0px 8px 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; text-align: start;">Young child and decapitated adult male, found at Polystylon in Thrace (14th c AD)</p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; text-align: start;"> </span><small class="article-photo-credit" style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; display: inline; line-height: 2; overflow: hidden; text-align: start; text-transform: uppercase;">PHOTO COURTESY A. AGELARAKIS / ADELPHI UNIVERSITY</small></span></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">"In my 30-plus years of working in bioarchaeology, it was the first time that I have uncovered such a find," Agelarakis tells me. "It's a truly spectacular time capsule of the Late Byzantine period safely preserved in the earth at Polystylon." In a recent report in the journal </span><a aria-label="Byzantina Symmeikta" data-ga-track="ExternalLink:https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/bz/article/view/8928" href="https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/bz/article/view/8928" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><em data-ga-track="ExternalLink:https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/bz/article/view/8928" style="box-sizing: inherit;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Byzantina Symmeikta</span></em></a><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">, Agelarakis details the remains he studied and weaves a narrative of the fall of the fortress and decapitation of one of its last occupants.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;">Agelarakis's investigation of the adult skull revealed a traumatic injury to the front midline of the skull caused by a sharp blow from a heavy weapon that likely fatally penetrated the frontal lobe. The presence of three small neck vertebrae fragments and the jaw suggest that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the head was still mostly fleshed at the time it was deposited near the child's grave</u></b><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;">, but no clear evidence of the location of the decapitation was found.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">Because of this information, Agelarakis hypothesizes that the man may have been decapitated and his body unburied for a period of time. While the rest of the body has not been found, it is possible that someone pitied the man and clandestinely buried his head in the Late Byzantine cemetery. A large fragment of utilitarian pottery was found near the two bodies; it may have been used as a shovel, and then was left in the pit with the head after burial.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">Beheadings are not commonly found on archaeological sites from this period, which means the timing of the injury and decapitation is particularly interesting. On the one hand, if beheading was the cause of the man's death, then the head trauma would have been the post-mortem mutilation. If the head wound preceded the beheading, though, then the decapitation would represent a post-mortem mutilation of the man's body.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;">"Historical records," Agelarakis writes, "provide </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">ample narratives of both executions by <span style="color: red;">impalement and beheading</span> of combatants</u></b><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;"> that had surrendered in battle against the Ottomans, and decapitations for the verification through trophy keeping of important individuals who had fallen while resisting Ottoman subjugation."</span></span></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNK3rZha3Q6aIpTKYt-qGBuXOYh9bwCo9S0klhQQqu5s2Uto5Fza8Z0dlfSAN0xRyehAH_DSLP0xJWobTF2q42_BPMqMGIGbDwyj8HJUoGoEN9lRxM0z3_pW6CRcmq3TWx5dAKpg1uyiOMIPnDmJueBhQHXKF8KhUoabVLtODhIt3XIguIEhuI8e5x/s500/minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="338" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNK3rZha3Q6aIpTKYt-qGBuXOYh9bwCo9S0klhQQqu5s2Uto5Fza8Z0dlfSAN0xRyehAH_DSLP0xJWobTF2q42_BPMqMGIGbDwyj8HJUoGoEN9lRxM0z3_pW6CRcmq3TWx5dAKpg1uyiOMIPnDmJueBhQHXKF8KhUoabVLtODhIt3XIguIEhuI8e5x/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><p aria-hidden="true" class="wp-caption-text" style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; display: inline; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0px 8px 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; text-align: start;">Mandible of the decapitated head from Abdera/Polystylon showing well-healed fracture.</p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; text-align: start;"> </span><small class="article-photo-credit" style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; display: inline; line-height: 2; overflow: hidden; text-align: start; text-transform: uppercase;">A. AGELARAKIS / ADELPHI UNIVERSITY</small></span></div><br /><p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">The importance of the decapitated man may be seen in the trauma he suffered about a decade before his death. Agelarakis notes that he sustained a fracture of his lower jaw that healed, although not particularly well. While the exact mechanism of this injury is unknown, he may have broken his jaw falling from a horse, from being struck by a spear or dagger, or from being hit by a projectile.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;">To survive and thrive after such an injury suggests some amount of medical care was tendered to the man while he recuperated. It also may suggest that he was important to the people of Polystylon. Cutting off the man's head may therefore have been </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a "revengeful act of subjugation, a punishment toward worthy opponents, possibly aimed to belittle, dehumanize, and silence him forever,"</u></b><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc;"> Agelarakis suggests.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; font-family: Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">Unusual cases of human skeletons are interesting to look at, but in the end, their importance rests with what new information they can provide about life in the past. As an example of healed trauma, the isolated head reveals evidence that practices detailed in the much earlier Hippocratic Corpus were followed, Agelarakis tells me. And as an example of decapitation, he says, "the warrior head adds valuable data to the historical record of the time period and the relative dating of the Polystylon fortress."</span></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2019/01/31/this-defender-of-a-byzantine-fort-was-decapitated-by-the-ottomans/?sh=30a71b392ba3" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: medium;">Forbes.com</span></a><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhh5-im_7Poh0N51oHoBVfR6CuMWt7CxLn617uFYQfObYo3hf2P4GAN-9T1DDKVbJDsPANfbA3Dr31vojjGq6hxgFnF_f9bPh3-f8b8gFExDzYxQx6wEvFaC6lKHiU5J8ID8g37jsjAMfMBFrQnkH-JIyuU3RxKlYcdWqh5pY-efmQF-_1fxUrgcElO/s573/minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="573" data-original-width="467" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhh5-im_7Poh0N51oHoBVfR6CuMWt7CxLn617uFYQfObYo3hf2P4GAN-9T1DDKVbJDsPANfbA3Dr31vojjGq6hxgFnF_f9bPh3-f8b8gFExDzYxQx6wEvFaC6lKHiU5J8ID8g37jsjAMfMBFrQnkH-JIyuU3RxKlYcdWqh5pY-efmQF-_1fxUrgcElO/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>The Byzantine Empire in the early 1300s.</b></span></span></div><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-12965175589301292002022-12-01T10:14:00.000-08:002022-12-01T10:14:32.937-08:00"On Skirmishing" - Eastern Roman Cavalry Tactics<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0uNkA41La6XPJSaK4sFcarOykHsVwEIf8zy1KzZka5YlmrRn6wqmBp3gtFH_4NEItm7Q35ieAsz565fvGUq-n2IB6S9Mss3Wfw2HIyOvcxFJeu757b2x911ASI0UY-g0_iCyI2CY5FFi1YGM6tnxsk4FQOSiXVDSgX-fhSnMBocLLOTPPlffhcOQE/s764/minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="764" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0uNkA41La6XPJSaK4sFcarOykHsVwEIf8zy1KzZka5YlmrRn6wqmBp3gtFH_4NEItm7Q35ieAsz565fvGUq-n2IB6S9Mss3Wfw2HIyOvcxFJeu757b2x911ASI0UY-g0_iCyI2CY5FFi1YGM6tnxsk4FQOSiXVDSgX-fhSnMBocLLOTPPlffhcOQE/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b>Late Roman cavalry</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="-apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Fira Sans", "Droid Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3", "Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro", メイリオ, Meiryo, "MS Pゴシック", Arial, sans-serif, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol"" style="background-color: white; color: #111111; font-size: 14px; text-align: left;"><a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/474003929507856754/" target="_blank">(pinterest.com)</a> </span></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">I found a great little 2009 article on Byzantine cavalry tactics. Sadly, the good old copy and paste method is blocked. Why??? Who knows? No one is going to pay for this material. So I will do a summary of part of it.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The internet has provided me so many odd tidbits of information on the Eastern Roman Army. For example, articles on hand grenades, heavy artillery, land mines and infantry squares. You can find these articles and others on the right side of this page under "Army".</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The picture we get is of a highly sophisticated, trained and powerful Roman military machine.</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">It was not an accident that the Eastern Empire survived endless attacks from every possible direction by every barbarian tribe imaginable plus by the armies of the civilized Persian Empire. The Roman Army lost and regained ground constantly. But the bottom line is, because of the army and navy the Empire survived for centuries.</span></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">"On Skirmishing"</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">Mobile cavalry was vital in defending the huge eastern border. Strong points would be defended by the infantry.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The military treatise "On Skirmishing" was written during the reign of Emperor <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikephoros_II_Phokas" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Nikephoros II Phokas</span></a> (963-969) and deals with tactics involved with border warfare.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">In the words of the author "Our part by writing down these things just as our predecessors handed them on to us, as well from our own experience which goes back a long time." References are made about generations of military knowledge handed down.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The author says <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the strategy of many generations we perfected</u></b> in the 10th Century:</span></p><p></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-size: medium;">"To the best of my knowledge, it was Bardas, the blessed Caesar, who brought this method to the summit of perfection. I do not want to enumerate all the ancient commanders but shall limit myself to those in our time whom everyone knows. When this method had completely vanished, it was Bardas who brought it back."</span></li></ul><p></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWcZV0Xtifs-8cvC9Aor8gsL-1Tr_kRFTNSbj5rFHWi9s18xuaplfQA1ToED1IBIz0xDrEUwN9WDj6i9f1JBTV2jM06N-EjfzIDvm33U8818MMfGRo2hP96ilK_AYdSASREXg70Uddpg48xo9KeJOOYKtHBM-HXTvgFnD2rvieCdIf2xWM2jqng86L/s509/minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="509" data-original-width="502" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWcZV0Xtifs-8cvC9Aor8gsL-1Tr_kRFTNSbj5rFHWi9s18xuaplfQA1ToED1IBIz0xDrEUwN9WDj6i9f1JBTV2jM06N-EjfzIDvm33U8818MMfGRo2hP96ilK_AYdSASREXg70Uddpg48xo9KeJOOYKtHBM-HXTvgFnD2rvieCdIf2xWM2jqng86L/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><u>Roman Cavalry</u></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: start;">Living history military re-enactment group The Ermine Street Guard at Kelmarsh Hall. </span><span style="text-align: left;">Photo taken in Kelmarsh, Northamptonshire in July 2009.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face=""Proxima Nova", "helvetica neue", helvetica, arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f3f5f6; color: #212124; font-size: 14px; text-align: start;"><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/stevegreaves/4425000463/" target="_blank">(flickr.com)</a><br /></span></div><br /><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The evolution of Roman strategy allowed them to defend the eastern frontier in the 7th and 8th centuries and then reach a point where they could reconquer lost provinces in the 10th century.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><i>On Skirmishing</i> exclusively <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">deals with the eastern front</u></b> and the non-stop fighting with the Arabs. Secondly, it directly addresses the general on how to face the enemy.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><i>On Skirmishing</i> can be divided into two parts: </span></p><p></p><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-size: medium;">Weaken the enemy as efficiently as possible. This is done by limiting forage, harassing any vulnerable detachments, utilizing favorable terrain, and constantly shadowing the enemy.</span></li><li><span style="font-size: medium;">Try to defeat the enemy as efficiently as possible once they are worn down. This would be done using a variety of ambushes, night attacks, blocking the enemy's retreat and striking when and where they least expect it.</span></li></ol><p></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">Basically the plan allows the enemy to march into Roman lands while trying to gain military victories as efficiently as possible.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">It is stressed that <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">generals buy time so the Roman peasants could relocate to safer areas. </u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">Preserving the Roman economic base was vital to the long term health of Empire. The question is asked: "What can be done if the enemy launch a sudden concentrated attack . . . before Imperial forces have been assembled?" In this case, the general is recommended to do the following:</span></p><p></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-size: medium;">"Dispatch the turmarch of that region, or other officers, with great speed to get ahead of the enemy and, as best they can, evacuate and find refuge for the inhabitants of the villages and their flocks . . . give the enemy the impression that he is getting ready for a battle right then (at night). By doing this he might succeed in forestalling their attack and preserve the region unharmed . . . He himself should advance with selected officers and good horsemen and give the enemy the impression that he has been making preparations to fight against them in order to launch an attack . . . if there is no river or rough ground along the road, he should still expose himself a bit and advance as though to fight . . . By such procedures he will save the villagers from impending assault and from captivity, and they shall keep their freedom. With great precision and foresight, let him make his appearance and charge against them with a few selected horsemen, as we have said. These will immediately turn tail and retreat to the strong places and fortresses and be preserved from harm."</span></li></ul><p></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">A comparison should be made with the collapse of the Western Roman frontier in the 4th and 5th centuries and the successful defense of the Eastern Empire's frontier from the 7th to 10th centuries.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The Western Romans saw an economic collapse as various barbarian tribes moved in and laid waste to the countryside. The destruction of the economic base helped speed along the military collapse.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The Eastern Romans not only <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">staved off destruction</u></b> but were able to support themselves and regain the offensive and expand the Empire.</span></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBTuy4febq6ecbj0RvMI868ZUsULiIMHszxrMmOFgp74soOyI-jYRG6-ZOkfnC4q0X5uMyttpkOEHYWapycZOLKrB43mod39F2f7-h7m0H2gT44QJvjAGDuW5XahKmnXLH3P3pc_HDL2R02xh3ZmkCuN543g_wIAcVMT71d0nEHWCA3ReS3WoH1Wmr/s500/minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="407" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBTuy4febq6ecbj0RvMI868ZUsULiIMHszxrMmOFgp74soOyI-jYRG6-ZOkfnC4q0X5uMyttpkOEHYWapycZOLKrB43mod39F2f7-h7m0H2gT44QJvjAGDuW5XahKmnXLH3P3pc_HDL2R02xh3ZmkCuN543g_wIAcVMT71d0nEHWCA3ReS3WoH1Wmr/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: large;">Europe around 800AD</span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">The Eastern Romans had a long border </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">to defend with the Caliphate.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_zQ-8Y3r_hdZLlB4p_29rHAqj5UgKV8A5YOlD8jyyMYJggBgsW8_6tC3kMKvpf5pRwzimN838am2eEUMxXzXVKkjSEfZ-3AqU5t_613MgG7nFZpKArZ2ol2yOSdI00RvpoxiPDgjgL-W0JK6RIi24S5_NANXVvOSmrmb4uLKks7LQdaCtjYy5rmiR/s750/minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="750" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_zQ-8Y3r_hdZLlB4p_29rHAqj5UgKV8A5YOlD8jyyMYJggBgsW8_6tC3kMKvpf5pRwzimN838am2eEUMxXzXVKkjSEfZ-3AqU5t_613MgG7nFZpKArZ2ol2yOSdI00RvpoxiPDgjgL-W0JK6RIi24S5_NANXVvOSmrmb4uLKks7LQdaCtjYy5rmiR/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Setting traps for the enemy</u></b> was discussed.</span></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">"Have him (an experienced commander) order a few of the men under him to dress like farmers, and mix in some real farmers and herdsmen with them. All of them ought to be unarmed and their heads uncovered. Some should be barefoot. All should be on horseback, carrying very short wooden staffs. Do all this to deceive the enemy and to give them the impression that these men are not from the army but just some farmers, of the sort called stewards . . . our men, then, who are disguised as farmers and peasant stewards, when the enemy have begun to follow them, should hurry to reach the site of the ambuscade. There the enemy who are following them, caught off their guard, will fall right into the ambush."</span></li></ul></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">To a large degree <i>On Skirmishing</i> talks about avoiding major battles while protecting the local peasants and economy. Chewing up intruding enemy forces and pushing them back across the border was the goal. But larger battles were discussed.</span></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">"You should launch your attack from the rear with infantry units. Divide the remaining infantry into six divisions; station three off to the right side of the enemy, and three off to the left . . . leave open and unguarded the road, and that alone, which provides safe passage for the enemy toward their own land. After they have been vigorously assaulted and they discover the open road, beguiled by the idea of being saved, of fleeing the battle, and of getting back to their own land, they mount their horses and race along that road to escape, each man concerned about his own safety . . . He (the general) should occupy the mountain heights (on the enemy's path of retreat) and also secure the road passing through . . . hasten to seize the passes before they do and without delay launch your attack directly against them."</span></li></ul></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><i>On Skirmishing</i> advises <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">exploiting the retreat of the enemy</u></b> for maximum effect. The goal is to limit your losses while inflicting the maximum number of losses on your retreating foe.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLsEbgH8VGkAyyM80FzMqxA3EvnhkX9sd4B4gKvcrMG54oGC_x-Qm6mVRV11aJjUJy2C19HaL_b8efJEoWy1GV1uLC-hBRor8wLhTSlIoldrJY0f-8YeJQE44IchiVHj7JzJDHkwZi8X5-uvAwuwBA2xdPWStUrnYxAgKLBCY3zrnt9pmvYYI9cv0s/s500/minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLsEbgH8VGkAyyM80FzMqxA3EvnhkX9sd4B4gKvcrMG54oGC_x-Qm6mVRV11aJjUJy2C19HaL_b8efJEoWy1GV1uLC-hBRor8wLhTSlIoldrJY0f-8YeJQE44IchiVHj7JzJDHkwZi8X5-uvAwuwBA2xdPWStUrnYxAgKLBCY3zrnt9pmvYYI9cv0s/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">If an enemy general refuses to fall for the Roman traps then it is advised to ignore the invaders and <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">attack the enemy homeland</u></b>.</span></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">"Therefore, General, when you are at a loss about how to injure the enemy with stratagems and ambushes, because they are very cautious and guard themselves carefully, or if, on the other hand, it is because your forces are not up to facing them openly in battle, then this is what you ought to do. Either you march quickly against the lands of the enemy, leaving the most responsible of the other generals behind, with though troops for skirmishing and for security of the themes . . . When the enemy hear of this, they will force their leader, even if he is unwilling, to get back and defend their own country."</span></li></ul></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">It is important to note the context of the time when <i>On Skirmishing</i> was written.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Romans had lost their richest provinces: Africa, Egypt, Palestine and Syria to the Arabs. This was a serious blow to the Empire in both manpower for the military and a loss of taxes to support the troops.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Romans were permanently on the defensive against the now numerically superior Arabs.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">To survive the <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Romans adopted guerilla warfare</u></b> against the Arabs. They used small, well-led bands of men from local provinces to wear down the enemy. Speed and surprise was the rule of the day and swiftly moving light cavalry was of supreme importance.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">After defeating several invading Arab armies the border began to stabilize. The Arabs were reduced to using raiding parties to gather loot. The Romans replied in kind.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGeaBqUmB1wJeDg3AI4s2M7xHFsncckHJSAwflmnKFBzXC2Og502ODP_IzxoBiMaxgngI5Lf9pP1K0LSuCrHJTl2wdXROURzo26CGyKrL5dbv50_r_dLuAymJ7V5YfCaaKEWqoojgEeMnqEoUpqtQfVd-U0lna9RmPsJlWaVfDmxJDEAO-k1DTJWEP/s761/minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="761" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGeaBqUmB1wJeDg3AI4s2M7xHFsncckHJSAwflmnKFBzXC2Og502ODP_IzxoBiMaxgngI5Lf9pP1K0LSuCrHJTl2wdXROURzo26CGyKrL5dbv50_r_dLuAymJ7V5YfCaaKEWqoojgEeMnqEoUpqtQfVd-U0lna9RmPsJlWaVfDmxJDEAO-k1DTJWEP/s16000/minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="ff0" style="background-color: #f3f4fa; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Roboto, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 83px; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="a" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ff0, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; height: 1px; left: 410px; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 5114px; word-spacing: 36px;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.dreamstime.com/photos-images/roman-soldiers-fighting.html" target="_blank">(dreamstime.com)</a><br /></div><div><br /></div><br /><p><a href="https://www.academia.edu/4992658/Heraclius_and_the_Evolution_of_Byzantine_Strategy?email_work_card=title" target="_blank">(academia.edu/4992658/Heraclius)</a><br /></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-4344777770665026692022-09-27T11:19:00.000-07:002022-09-27T11:19:16.967-07:00Battle for Africa - The Defeat at Heliopolis<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUApESBg_3afiHgqBWtCPVgF2Rwh7xB95et3Wfj5E4BWBN_HK_fCfpREdA5A9S9dGj-ry8o6Xvicdd-C2PSDa8bsIlNWfHt23-fyo1w_ZXnke5yxiptCdBNsckbhsJE5VapOwwbosAxDCVWJGZHjPGPL9J4fIuTYvWakTuTfg8T-XaUwK6yrM2jgdL/s640/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="640" data-original-width="483" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUApESBg_3afiHgqBWtCPVgF2Rwh7xB95et3Wfj5E4BWBN_HK_fCfpREdA5A9S9dGj-ry8o6Xvicdd-C2PSDa8bsIlNWfHt23-fyo1w_ZXnke5yxiptCdBNsckbhsJE5VapOwwbosAxDCVWJGZHjPGPL9J4fIuTYvWakTuTfg8T-XaUwK6yrM2jgdL/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-size: medium;">Roman Reenactors</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: small;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><b><u>The Beginning of the End </u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><b><u>for Roman Africa, <span style="color: red;">Part II</span></u></b></div></span></div><div><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u>What if . . . . ??????</u></b></span><br /><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In 425 BC the Greek playwright Aristophanes wrote: </span><span style="background-color: #fcff01;"><b><u>"</u></b><b><u>Ah! the Generals! they are numerous, but not good for much!"</u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">So true.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Most generals appear to be vaguely aware that it is best to point their army in the general direction of an enemy. Beyond that "generalship" is often seriously lacking. The bulk of generals are little more than career bureaucrats who specialize in shining chairs with their asses. Add or take away one or two key generals out of any war and results can change radically.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">A good example, take out U.S. Grant and </span><span style="background-color: white;">William Tecumseh Sherman from the American Civil War and the South might have remained an independent nation.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">So the question is, what if the invading Muslim Arabs had faced a younger Emperor </span><span style="background-color: white;">Heraclius who had just crushed the Persian Empire? Facing him personally in the field at the peak of his powers as a general would have changed Middle East history. Or what if the great early Muslim commander </span><span style="background-color: white;">Khalid ibn al-Walid had died of food poisoning years before the Arab invasions had started?</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">History could have been very different. </span><span style="background-color: white;">As it was the other Eastern Roman Generals showed modest to little talent. </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">After successfully conquering Syria between 634 and 638, the Arabs turned their attention to Egypt. The attack on Africa took the Romans by surprise. Heraclius’s generals had advised him that the Muslims would need a generation to digest Persia before undertaking another wholesale conquest. The increasingly frail Emperor was forced to depend on his generals, and the result was complete disaster.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif"><span style="background-color: white;">In 639, less than a year after the complete fall of the Sassanid Persian Empire, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">an army of some 4,000</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> commanded by </span></span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Amr_ibn_al-%27As" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" title="'Amr ibn al-'As">Amr ibn al-A'as</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">, under orders of Omar, began the invasion of the </span>Diocese of Egypt<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">. That relatively tiny force marched from Syria through El-Arish, easily took </span>Farama<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">, and from there proceeded to </span>Bilbeis<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">, where they were delayed for a month.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> But having captured Bilbeis, the Arabs moved again.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPWmeqgdrjZPG-9xPXiAD_gWkuht7ANVsgZx4yuE1kvewPOZhzYZ0D-hmuLfF1MMMzfGC-opKzk5yGHUNLOwfgjvUXBtgni3NHZxxkR7QFFE49j511UvMjO8DtP6J4bq_Vf4n4dYbO2sUqvfQw6l8VgU70vQcssWBSfp64Yur7FbgGb-cQVrC4wg1b/s500/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="482" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPWmeqgdrjZPG-9xPXiAD_gWkuht7ANVsgZx4yuE1kvewPOZhzYZ0D-hmuLfF1MMMzfGC-opKzk5yGHUNLOwfgjvUXBtgni3NHZxxkR7QFFE49j511UvMjO8DtP6J4bq_Vf4n4dYbO2sUqvfQw6l8VgU70vQcssWBSfp64Yur7FbgGb-cQVrC4wg1b/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><b><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">Egypt Was Conquered by Persia</span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In the early 600s, centuries of Roman rule in Egypt, Palestine and Syria came to a violent end with Persian armies invading and the lands being absorbed into the Persian Empire. For over 10 years the locals looked to Persia for their economy, laws, religious freedom and security. Constantinople and ties to Rome faded in the minds of an entire generation.</span></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"> I<span style="text-align: start;">n the summer of 629, the Persian troops began leaving Egypt and a fleet from Constantinople arrived at Alexandria to garrison the country with Roman troops.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><span style="text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: start;">But Roman authority in Egypt had been undermined by the 10 year rule of Persia and the </span><b style="text-align: start;"><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">religious freedom</u></b><span style="text-align: start;"> that came with it.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><span style="text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><span style="text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">When the Muslims crossed into Egypt the local Coptic population was not very interested in defending an Empire that was crushing their freedom.</span></span></div></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhe2pBkH2UfFJ_7No6qLQ5ntFy0jgdheauX3_y1TjusHJKr785y28kWxYyqPj7LYnK-eaGRUp9k0Q0QulTJ1XAeBu2F6544511dfoX3vSpsApjPsGWKxrx3bXioMfmInq1I6N2caXjPYH9n71yuQBJZCKXyWjsZss_tATj33o9oek7bjh2TQPVeO9GD/s558/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="558" data-original-width="503" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhe2pBkH2UfFJ_7No6qLQ5ntFy0jgdheauX3_y1TjusHJKr785y28kWxYyqPj7LYnK-eaGRUp9k0Q0QulTJ1XAeBu2F6544511dfoX3vSpsApjPsGWKxrx3bXioMfmInq1I6N2caXjPYH9n71yuQBJZCKXyWjsZss_tATj33o9oek7bjh2TQPVeO9GD/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="background-color: white;"><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">Roman Emperor Heraclius</span></u></b><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px;" /><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Crowned Caesar <span lang="la" style="text-align: start;">Flavius Heraclius Augustus</span> in 610. Latin was still the official language of the military and government. The Emperor faced invasions by Persians, Avars, Spanish Visigoths and Muslim Arabs. The Emperor personally commanded Roman troops in an invasion into the heart of Persia. He crushed their Empire and forced Persian troops to evacuate the conquered Roman provinces of Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia.</span></span></div><div><br /></div><br /><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Another 12,000 Muslim reinforcements were marching into Egypt to join with the 4,000 already there under Amr.. The<span style="background-color: white;"> smaller Arab force, commanded by a charismatic and tactically brilliant commander went behind enemy lines, and caused chaos all out of proportion to their size.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Roman commander Theodore had built up a considerable army of <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">perhaps 20,000 men</u></b> around the fortress of Babylon. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Theodore had the opportunity to attack the smaller Arab army before the new army arrived. Instead out of fear? or excessive caution? Theodore remained inactive at Babylon.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The second army dispatched by Omar arrived at </span>Heliopolis<span style="background-color: white;"> and began to lay siege to it. Amr retraced his route across the Nile River, and united his forces with those of the second army. They began to prepare for movement towards Alexandria – but scouts reported that Theodore and the Roman Army were finally on the move.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Why Theodore waited for the two smaller Arab armies to unite into one large army of 15,000 is not known. Perhaps Theodore was shamed by his officers for inaction.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Perhaps the morale of Theodore's troops was undermined by the reports of Arab victories against both the Persians and Romans in Syria and </span>Mesopotamia<span style="font-family: inherit;">. </span></span></span></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZu044OvflVv1LmJ4-s1qeghhMgtgJzLoOjD0bFCRL2d2m5v1OjSeoraZ5WZYHYu8oCGI_UAwW5mNCBxAKfxq74GtwQ83r9G_yhMEFHd1sZ7sZpB3i49Tee83RxnsTq5L90j2Wb5DHUi_kwRZHC-YKafqcHrZVllvmVeiqKr3raTo5N0aMr2e3MlxA/s750/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="750" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZu044OvflVv1LmJ4-s1qeghhMgtgJzLoOjD0bFCRL2d2m5v1OjSeoraZ5WZYHYu8oCGI_UAwW5mNCBxAKfxq74GtwQ83r9G_yhMEFHd1sZ7sZpB3i49Tee83RxnsTq5L90j2Wb5DHUi_kwRZHC-YKafqcHrZVllvmVeiqKr3raTo5N0aMr2e3MlxA/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">Heliopolis </b><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">was a major city of </span>ancient Egypt<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">. It was the capital of the </span>13th<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> or </span>Heliopolite Nome<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> of </span>Lower Egypt<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> and a major religious center.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">The major surviving remnant of Heliopolis is the </span>obelisk<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> of the Temple of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra_(god)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Ra (god)">Ra</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">-</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atum" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Atum">Atum</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> erected by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senusret_I" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty_XII" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Dynasty XII">Dynasty XII</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">. It still stands in its original position, now within Al-Masalla in </span>Al-Matariyyah<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">, Cairo.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">Heliopolis is the </span>Latinized<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> form of the </span>Greek<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> name </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">Hēlioúpolis</i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> (</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;" title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ἡλιούπολις</span></span><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122; text-align: start;"><span style="background-color: white;">), meaning </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">"City of the Sun</u></b><u><b style="background-color: #fcff01;">"</b></u><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQ6veTUhiU7VHB_yoXlasbCsHSr0cQIiYtJ5j6pEW7S-w_VtLAbD0GruadM7eikI7aaGnniMrnY96PATD4RWr9bMQBHxx9d5lkq366GQClLWcOrcQpdG0EXhzaxFscrzZ07b-Si4H8rXVLONHwQ4upHGwnV6NTlV099S9-ccWxMBZS_bJ_UlZjZ71r/s868/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="554" data-original-width="868" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQ6veTUhiU7VHB_yoXlasbCsHSr0cQIiYtJ5j6pEW7S-w_VtLAbD0GruadM7eikI7aaGnniMrnY96PATD4RWr9bMQBHxx9d5lkq366GQClLWcOrcQpdG0EXhzaxFscrzZ07b-Si4H8rXVLONHwQ4upHGwnV6NTlV099S9-ccWxMBZS_bJ_UlZjZ71r/w400-h255/Minds.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Click to enlarge</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Map from <i>The Great Arab Conquests</i> (1964)</span></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">by <span style="line-height: 22.4px;">Lieutenant-General </span><b style="line-height: 22.4px; text-align: left;">Sir John Bagot Glubb</b><span style="line-height: 22.4px;">, </span>KCB<span style="line-height: 22.4px;">, </span>CMG<span style="line-height: 22.4px;">, </span>DSO<span style="line-height: 22.4px;">, </span>OBE<span style="line-height: 22.4px;">, </span>MC</span></div></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: large;">The Battle</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">So in July, 640 Theodore decided to march out of Babylon and take on the now united Arab force. He advanced across the plain to attack Heliopolis.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">We do not know much about the Roman troops - how much cavalry, infantry or local militia for example.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">What we do know is Amr fought a brilliant battle at Heliopolis. </span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">When the Roman Army began approaching, Amr </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">divided his army into three separate units</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, with one detachment under the command of a trusted commander, Kharija. Under the cover of darkness this unit marched abruptly east to nearby hills, where they effectively hid. This unit was to remain there until the Romans had begun the battle, at which point they were to fall on the Roman flank or rear, whichever was more vulnerable. The second detachment Amr ordered to the south, which would be the direction the Romans would flee if the battle went badly.</span></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The two Arab flanking parties had moved in the dark and were not seen by the Romans.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">The two main armies met in desperate hand hand-to-hand combat. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">Once the Roman forces initiated contact with Amr's forces and commenced an attack, the detachment of Kharija attacked the Theodore's rear, which was completely unexpected by the Romans.</span></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Theodore had not kept scouts out</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, or, if he had, he ignored their warning of the approaching Arab horsemen.</span></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">This attack from the rear created utter chaos among the Roman ranks. As Theodore's troops attempted to flee to the south, they were attacked by the third detachment, which had been placed there for just such a purpose. This completed the final break-down and defeat of the Roman army, which fled in all directions.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Theodore survived, but with only a tiny fragment of his army, while the remainder was killed or captured. Many survivors retreated to the Fortress of Babylon.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><u>Aftermath</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif"><span style="background-color: white;">In the battle's aftermath, most of southern and central Egypt fell to Amr's forces. </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The defeat at Heliopolis was crucial, as it removed the last Roman force</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> standing between the Islamic invaders and the heart of Egypt. However, not only did the Battle of Heliopolis leave Egypt practically </span></span><span face="sans-serif"><span>defenseless.</span></span></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The defeat encouraged the disaffected natives, most of whom were </span>Monophysite<span style="background-color: white;"> Christians and had suffered on-and-off persecution at the hands of Constantinople, to rise up against their Roman oppressors.</span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Although the Eastern Empire was certainly by lineage the Roman Empire, its traditions, language, and ruling elite, by this time, were Greek. The Greeks of Egypt, whose numbers could scarcely equal a tenth of the native population, were overwhelmed by the universal defection of those same natives from obedience to the Roman Empire. As Bury wrote in the <i>History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene</i>:</span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></p><dl style="background-color: white; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">”The Greeks had ever been hated, they were no longer feared: the magistrate fled from his tribunal, the bishop from his altar; and the distant garrisons were surprised or starved by the surrounding multitudes.”</span></dd><dd style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></dd></dl></dd></dl><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Bishop John of Nikiu said, "And thereupon the Moslem made their entry into Nakius, and took possession, and finding no soldiers (to offer resistance), </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">they proceeded to put to the sword all whom they found</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> in the streets and in the churches, men, women, and infants, and they showed mercy to none. And after they had captured (this) city, they marched against other localities and sacked them and put all they found to the sword. And they came also to the city of Sa, and there they found Esqutaws and his people in a vineyard, and the Moslem seized them and put them to the sword.</span></span></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Sir Walter Scott was correct when he said </span><b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">“the fate of Byzantine Africa was decided at the Battle of Heliopolis.”</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The permanent loss of the Egypt left the Roman Empire without an irreplaceable source of food and money.</span></span></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfQX1BE5mYTEksOEoJFDgQvSknO62jsfXDgdW5swdVUiFUudZbXdjonDy3fS4PNuskOSfoY0t3EZFce1NhAOtJquTJxqf2iWL74dptupcl5KaDrpftOu4D21HcvgFuJzRZy5Te1YtI11TOnyb8SMJHpp0Qc-faF8Lwjbwf8k8VVkvo6GrCj9XNkqeR/s748/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="748" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfQX1BE5mYTEksOEoJFDgQvSknO62jsfXDgdW5swdVUiFUudZbXdjonDy3fS4PNuskOSfoY0t3EZFce1NhAOtJquTJxqf2iWL74dptupcl5KaDrpftOu4D21HcvgFuJzRZy5Te1YtI11TOnyb8SMJHpp0Qc-faF8Lwjbwf8k8VVkvo6GrCj9XNkqeR/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Late Roman Reenactors</span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: start;">The East Roman Army was a direct continuation of the eastern portion of the</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: start;"> Roman Army</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: start;">, from before the division of the empire. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: left;">How the Eastern Roman soldiers dressed </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: left;"><u style="background-color: yellow;">we know almost nothing</u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: left;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; letter-spacing: -0.084px; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">During early Byzantine times, shields were recommended to be painted the same color in order to distinguish the troops. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; letter-spacing: -0.084px; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; letter-spacing: -0.084px; text-align: start;">By the fifth century, </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #222222; letter-spacing: -0.084px; text-align: start;"><u style="background-color: yellow;">soldiers were being paid in cash to purchase their own armor and equipment</u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; letter-spacing: -0.084px; text-align: start;">. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; letter-spacing: -0.084px; text-align: left;">This meant that a high degree of uniformity in appearance must have been unlikely.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; letter-spacing: -0.084px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: start;">Armor was non-standard. A soldier might have brought his grandfather's old armor & sword. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: start;">Also, uniforms themselves were not a concept at that time. So colors of the tunics worn by different men in the same unit could vary.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">mm</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Photos from <a href="https://www.facebook.com/magistermilitumreenactment/?tn-str=k*F" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Magister Militum</span></a></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuJmSXMSpI7V-6L73jTSi_LIsjDWVi1zV5PATzmJxOURyVQMXEu43EI1WpTK84FC-aOoO0RixKcoNej8AZ0qutRXbceIh9tMdT6aU90O1Rs0bzOF5dPCmF_cnpAZpHB90T2JdWF1YygKC791KFvdOUg3S2DjG5hnWNTPSZ0F0P5gInmJdogxodJruU/s500/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="334" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuJmSXMSpI7V-6L73jTSi_LIsjDWVi1zV5PATzmJxOURyVQMXEu43EI1WpTK84FC-aOoO0RixKcoNej8AZ0qutRXbceIh9tMdT6aU90O1Rs0bzOF5dPCmF_cnpAZpHB90T2JdWF1YygKC791KFvdOUg3S2DjG5hnWNTPSZ0F0P5gInmJdogxodJruU/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><b><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">The Beginning of the End </span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><b><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">for Roman Africa</span></u></b></div></div><div><br /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/2020/08/battle-for-africa-babylon-egypt.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Battle for Africa - Siege of Babylon, Egypt</span></a><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopolis_(ancient_Egypt)" target="_blank">(Heliopolis)</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/great-Arab-conquests-Bagot-Glubb/dp/1566196809" style="background-color: white;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: inherit;">(Glubb, Great Arab Conquests)</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Heliopolis" target="_blank">(Heliopolis)</a><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-43727555548009027872022-09-01T09:14:00.001-07:002022-09-01T09:14:32.007-07:00Late Roman Army Archers<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVyCkKb08WSa-epL1LTIEiX8uZCddk_-b7owrGWNo_XJGjS0uwUYQaGYf_Vqzki5ZQjqlZVYGYozF7GvAyxVNB-7L9iKtbutX3WbPTRsdFsGbaGpOynOK-C9QBIqmuCT__9iR-L5YjlvpStT711Dp4TzOMpn5WFogcNam6veLoRuYMT-5a6OEBI1vc/s500/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVyCkKb08WSa-epL1LTIEiX8uZCddk_-b7owrGWNo_XJGjS0uwUYQaGYf_Vqzki5ZQjqlZVYGYozF7GvAyxVNB-7L9iKtbutX3WbPTRsdFsGbaGpOynOK-C9QBIqmuCT__9iR-L5YjlvpStT711Dp4TzOMpn5WFogcNam6veLoRuYMT-5a6OEBI1vc/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">From <span>The Barcarii</span> Facebook page</span></p><div class="kvgmc6g5 cxmmr5t8 oygrvhab hcukyx3x c1et5uql ii04i59q" style="color: #050505; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Late Roman army </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">used archers or sagittarii extensively in the infantry and cavalry units</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> and these ranged from light all the way up to heavy units, often </span><span style="background-color: white;"><a style="color: #385898; cursor: pointer;" tabindex="-1"></a></span><span style="background-color: white;">mixed or intermingled with the main troops or raised as dedicated sagittarii units.</span></span></div></div><div class="cxmmr5t8 oygrvhab hcukyx3x c1et5uql o9v6fnle ii04i59q" style="color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In terms of the equipment used by a sagittarius, the main bow is generally understood to be the composite bow, sometimes referred to as the Hunnic bow, which used asymmetric limbs. The lower limb was the shorter of the two. This composite bow was reinforced with bone or antler laths - 2 on each limb and 2 more in the central grip. Few remains have survived in the archaeological finds and what has is invariably the laths - the wood and other perishable remains having long since rotted away. </span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9U4m0QRrRLr2D_iAkRK5grbdo01UesE7Nwy5WaavLpdaGd17rGW_BlnY3tG6ysWX1fJPKz1pPlC43y43l5WunBXyobYzq9kllQ2Tz3tXHqm-fhzvIRHe1IGqkN1pcscXn9c_w0hxO9qo6aDUMgNTTw3xo1ccd0Vce_Y9zjcdHer01HXcOsDukdXLm/s812/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="812" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9U4m0QRrRLr2D_iAkRK5grbdo01UesE7Nwy5WaavLpdaGd17rGW_BlnY3tG6ysWX1fJPKz1pPlC43y43l5WunBXyobYzq9kllQ2Tz3tXHqm-fhzvIRHe1IGqkN1pcscXn9c_w0hxO9qo6aDUMgNTTw3xo1ccd0Vce_Y9zjcdHer01HXcOsDukdXLm/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div></div><div dir="auto" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div dir="auto" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">These bows were common in the eastern portions of the Roman Empire and had </span><span style="background-color: white;">a long tradition in the Nomadic, Syrian, Arab and other cultures.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> In the west, which did not have a strong bow tradition, the self-bow or ‘arcubus ligneis’ predominated, examples of which survive in the Nydam finds. </span></span></div><div dir="auto" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div dir="auto" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">These were long bows with asymmetric nocks, sometimes with horn or iron tips or cordage bound about the limb - but not always. These bows were used in the Late Roman army as mainly training bows for the recruits until they were competent enough to progress onto the main composite bow as describe by Vegetius (Book 1, 15). </span></div></div><div class="cxmmr5t8 oygrvhab hcukyx3x c1et5uql o9v6fnle ii04i59q" style="color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In this context, it is worth noting that the only Imperial or State fabrica dedicated to the manufacture of bows was located in the west at Pavia, indicating that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the eastern portions of the Empire were manufacturing composite bows</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> using local craftsmen in sufficient numbers that the army suppliers could purchase them in volume out with a fabrica need.</span></span></div><div dir="auto" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div dir="auto" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; font-family: "Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDbPNlqpy2s83kIJMjpXxUXiSKpNXWgW-Sp_lw0CkFiGE_EbsNejzuABHnmfvVAhMS4NPwVdenRtDGCVcPiiwGtgKORIYQL-4rDaV0itKEP6amStYNXdB-hSW47UVniQ2nJmoUVSk4_BC180E7-Z76QSQuZRswTlTrvdNDioSwN0YNJ0l1CGEwc6We/s732/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="732" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDbPNlqpy2s83kIJMjpXxUXiSKpNXWgW-Sp_lw0CkFiGE_EbsNejzuABHnmfvVAhMS4NPwVdenRtDGCVcPiiwGtgKORIYQL-4rDaV0itKEP6amStYNXdB-hSW47UVniQ2nJmoUVSk4_BC180E7-Z76QSQuZRswTlTrvdNDioSwN0YNJ0l1CGEwc6We/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div></div><div class="cxmmr5t8 oygrvhab hcukyx3x c1et5uql o9v6fnle ii04i59q" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The quiver is represented on a number of illustrations, mosaics, carvings and statuary, often in mythological contexts. It is usually a leather tube with perhaps a wooden core, with sometimes a fringed decoration and a cap to protect the arrows from the weather. </span></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Nydam finds contain a wooden tube made of maple grooved to allow straps or fabric to be wound around for carrying. The position of the quiver is a matter of some debate. </span></div><div dir="auto" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div dir="auto" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbBtbYTeHf4Tu3IpjD7Qe4-xZdcOVmwvDcAgN0xtCCKPRrYcl6Cr3I5XzFknu9I10P4ZRv9h1xii6NNL7PXl0E_BSQSRnVJnXtSZKRB1_tYO8iGJBpHUPc3gVlj0qqKJ5UIMVtyJSZ5n9Dm1SQSYAegCJOGCUesYTrqXo6TmMF7TBJBIUfiFO5cGeQ/s1109/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1109" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbBtbYTeHf4Tu3IpjD7Qe4-xZdcOVmwvDcAgN0xtCCKPRrYcl6Cr3I5XzFknu9I10P4ZRv9h1xii6NNL7PXl0E_BSQSRnVJnXtSZKRB1_tYO8iGJBpHUPc3gVlj0qqKJ5UIMVtyJSZ5n9Dm1SQSYAegCJOGCUesYTrqXo6TmMF7TBJBIUfiFO5cGeQ/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div></div><div dir="auto" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div dir="auto" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Conventional opinion usually states that quivers were carried hung from the belt whereas back-slung quivers are relegated to mythology and not actually worn as such in warfare. However, various manuscript illustrations and carvings do show back-slung quivers which hint at a more complex situation. </span></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">As always, in reality, the needs and demands of the moment will outweigh convention or training and it might be that in a main battle-line or siege quivers were hung from the belt to aid drawing while skirmishing or hunting or on an extended march, they were then slung across the back so as to not impede movement.</span></div><div dir="auto" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: "Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: "Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi39KXrQVzudyBXgXRD5JwEAPhwGGizxyd6Iy5J6vpE879GxqKHXp7bOPz2LGAshkj85e28JBHB3RNa0_vqxITkHIQswJO_8b_91lc5mASadspmNMEtiw-pIZbLcr5MXmMepdFMCk8Km03ITsuzNPBOb8y69J6KcjSEnfqgxpgiuTMnzwolf2wHRHPE/s755/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="755" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi39KXrQVzudyBXgXRD5JwEAPhwGGizxyd6Iy5J6vpE879GxqKHXp7bOPz2LGAshkj85e28JBHB3RNa0_vqxITkHIQswJO_8b_91lc5mASadspmNMEtiw-pIZbLcr5MXmMepdFMCk8Km03ITsuzNPBOb8y69J6KcjSEnfqgxpgiuTMnzwolf2wHRHPE/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: "Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div class="cxmmr5t8 oygrvhab hcukyx3x c1et5uql o9v6fnle ii04i59q" style="color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The advantages of sagittarii in a naval or riverine context do not need to be overlaboured here. As Vegetius makes clear in his section on </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">naval warfare, missile weapons predominate over ramming prior to boarding. </u></b></span></div></div><div class="cxmmr5t8 oygrvhab hcukyx3x c1et5uql o9v6fnle ii04i59q" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The images below show a variety of Late Roman archers using the composite bow and self-bow after the Nydam model. The composite bows on show here lack the bone or antler laths and are therefore anachronistic as far as is known. It is possible that the ‘arcubus ligneis’ referred to by Vegetius is not actually a self-bow after the Celtic or Germannic models but instead a lesser composite by lacking the laths and hence merely a wooden bow as understood by the Romans. </span></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Recruits therefore train on this model before progressing to the more powerful Hunnic version. This, however, is speculation. Such a bow would not survive in the archaeological finds and so remains unknown.</span></div><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div dir="auto"><a class="oajrlxb2 g5ia77u1 qu0x051f esr5mh6w e9989ue4 r7d6kgcz rq0escxv nhd2j8a9 nc684nl6 p7hjln8o kvgmc6g5 cxmmr5t8 oygrvhab hcukyx3x jb3vyjys rz4wbd8a qt6c0cv9 a8nywdso i1ao9s8h esuyzwwr f1sip0of lzcic4wl gpro0wi8 oo9gr5id lrazzd5p" href="https://www.facebook.com/LateRomanArbeia?__cft__[0]=AZX4dABkN8YzcXsFIL_WllRedjAMj4GzF-j1xBE3dDS6YiIWnrQ95nUP8zWWSXhGjkdLvh4GvtTYB7qBFvGTcWIfic92nA5muEpCFc_1lKm1fW-mYnKbJsyIO5S-jBi3brbqYQCRlDy8gTBmlYrYfpRDT99m_PzIgdPa6qN5yRNFe11ogspWKUNO-VxX1nleiOzuKbBjV6-DPgB87W5VDshl&__tn__=-UC%2CP-y-R" role="link" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; border-color: initial; border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline; font-weight: 600; list-style: none; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; touch-action: manipulation; white-space: normal;" tabindex="0" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Barcarii</span></a></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGkO5m60qqW6D1p8pTWOb4KiNxci5dd5gjCCfa2Ai1vukTlIG47zsC-5Kd1Q6xwKwlsEjo6FeTEVw0LaVk7PdQq4hC92gucissQMZ4IfKmJ5zg3pf13EqQGDc6d6H5BlSM3e9cCOcoxFFdlVW5t7x1uFcYGXdvzQ6rZa7cXy97baJF9l1qiJ2OWML8/s500/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="331" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGkO5m60qqW6D1p8pTWOb4KiNxci5dd5gjCCfa2Ai1vukTlIG47zsC-5Kd1Q6xwKwlsEjo6FeTEVw0LaVk7PdQq4hC92gucissQMZ4IfKmJ5zg3pf13EqQGDc6d6H5BlSM3e9cCOcoxFFdlVW5t7x1uFcYGXdvzQ6rZa7cXy97baJF9l1qiJ2OWML8/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvIs6ZjuPFmcxeOkgJGmk8kNUkQts03-o4R_xL9NnB-V5BzPgPzabbPgCvFbeKSR-xGoY_bbajjyqYGkWjXG8PIc0FNKJCk69GH5pTH0pSYKuM6fn4t5dqTIW3Ts7kzQvzplXXOrmwc__dDcpBjxnFq-EtY-ORIHGQbvnPjVDnq9DPLF17rad7Lpxo/s500/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="499" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvIs6ZjuPFmcxeOkgJGmk8kNUkQts03-o4R_xL9NnB-V5BzPgPzabbPgCvFbeKSR-xGoY_bbajjyqYGkWjXG8PIc0FNKJCk69GH5pTH0pSYKuM6fn4t5dqTIW3Ts7kzQvzplXXOrmwc__dDcpBjxnFq-EtY-ORIHGQbvnPjVDnq9DPLF17rad7Lpxo/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-14328848975802572732022-08-02T10:43:00.001-07:002022-08-02T10:46:17.145-07:00Byzantine Army: The Concise 10th -11th century AD Imperial Infantry and Cavalry Soldier<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjocSqxw2DMelb2W_j9FrgH7mWrqorWQwNipbzptYokWrahbi-1eD3TZgVwEJbCIagiVNovFnUfT3q7Oo6w594D0HlcJo7Cc4Qut0ARDT-y4MZDFWak81srVJOQOcGt0nk_LvAPsQxsyuagrGSqYe5_zIEzL9rG2WEcOitB07OMys3q2M2Cfo2lMh-C/s602/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="602" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjocSqxw2DMelb2W_j9FrgH7mWrqorWQwNipbzptYokWrahbi-1eD3TZgVwEJbCIagiVNovFnUfT3q7Oo6w594D0HlcJo7Cc4Qut0ARDT-y4MZDFWak81srVJOQOcGt0nk_LvAPsQxsyuagrGSqYe5_zIEzL9rG2WEcOitB07OMys3q2M2Cfo2lMh-C/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>This article falls under the "You can find anything on the internet." I love sharing information from experts.</b></span></div><div><br /></div><br /><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">by John Dandoulakis (BA War Studies,
MA European and International Politics)
(Illustration by: Greg Owen) </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">After almost two decades of research on the subject of byzantine arms and
armour, and military history, as well as experience with re-enactment and
experimental archeology, this presentation marks the culmination and fulfilment
of a long-due obligation. The thesis of this presentation aims to provide an
archeology-based, evidence-based and profoundness-based answer to the ever troubling question of what a 10th-11th century (the high byzantine era) imperial
soldier most probably appeared like. For the sake of this research, any reliance
on iconographical sources (byzantine hagiography, miniature manuscripts and
religious ivory carvings) was eliminated completely, and it is only cited and linked
to when there exist one or more elements that can allude, even vaguely, to
archeological evidence and/or written source descriptions. The latter have been
treated as the main and primary gauge of this research, as well as the careful
reading and translation of primary medieval Greek textual sources</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In “Picture 1” the most standard and common panoply of a 10th
-11th century AD
byzantine medium-to-heavy infantry and cavalry soldier is presented. The
“basicness” of this panoply is defined by the prescription, by Leo VI Wise’s
Taktika (diataxis V-VI), that <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">every soldier should - at the least - wear a
chainmaille</u></b> (lorikion alysideton). Sporting a gambeson (nevrikon) is only allowed
for when the soldier could not afford a chainmaille, so it is not considered a
standard practice or image for a byzantine soldier. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">1. The chiton (χιτών) meaning a tunic. A basic low-class to middle-class tunic to the
length of the knee as a standard undergarment for the soldier of the medieval period. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">2. The kavvadion/nevrikon/bambakion (καββάδιον/νευρικόν/βαμβάκιον). A thick
padded armour made by coarse linen and stuffed with raw wool and cotton. It was
literally the byzantine version of a gambeson and very likely developed upon and from
the roman subarmalis. In Leo VI Wise’s “Taktika” it is clearly defined that the nevrikon (or
kavvadion in Nikephoros Phokas’ and Nikephoros Ouranos’ texts) could be worn either
together with a lorikion or - if a lorikion was not available - the nevrikon could serve as
the next best protection. In case of the former, however, when the lorikion and the
nevrikon were worn at the same time, contextual research, the knowledge of general
practice in medieval times and modern re-enactment experience indicate that the
padded linen piece of armour, would be worn below (and not above) the metallic lorikion.
This would serve both as an extra layer of protection and as a shock absorber. This is
further supported by modern-day re-enactment experiments which have demonstrated
that any type of padded armour, worn above the metallic armour, loses its protective
function against heavy penetration attacks (i.e., a flying arrow or a heavy spear), while it
has significantly higher chances to absorb some part of the penetration force, when worn
below metallic armour parts. Moreover, primary written accounts from the byzantine era
allude to the fact that the lorikion (chainmaille) was worn above any other <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">protective gear
and proved astonishingly effective, even against arrow fire.</u></b> </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">3. Leather boots. Knee-length leather boots are widely attested, both by Leo VI Wise
and the later Nikephoros Phokas treatise as pedila (πέδιλα = a greek word that literally
means “footwear” so it could in fact apply to any kind and size of leather shoe or boot),
mouzakia (μουζάκια) or tzervoulia (τζερβούλια), but they also appear largely in
miniatures and ivory carvings from the period (images 4, 5, 10, 11). </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6sRMY2efpOudVaQmKNpD2UjVWs6t_7qKh7ffVQ0F0gU1nCCUMFRFZrRmDK6jjn-ngKd7ujNmGvRpFBaGbI18S4WZlnVfahsfWzNFhOWzNGjqirRWO8JHlJLzRyI4D-7qAEuZ9pTvZZWWH7yT2x6llEYyvRmgx2C4rKbxfUOJWKb10oz4NnS5xW7EK/s500/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="263" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6sRMY2efpOudVaQmKNpD2UjVWs6t_7qKh7ffVQ0F0gU1nCCUMFRFZrRmDK6jjn-ngKd7ujNmGvRpFBaGbI18S4WZlnVfahsfWzNFhOWzNGjqirRWO8JHlJLzRyI4D-7qAEuZ9pTvZZWWH7yT2x6llEYyvRmgx2C4rKbxfUOJWKb10oz4NnS5xW7EK/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">4. The lorikion alysideton (λωρίκιον αλυσίδετον). Lorikion was the medieval Greek
version of the latin word for body armour: lorica, and it was the chainmaille. The
chainmaille is the most widely attested by archeological findings piece of byzantine
armour and, as prescribed in “Taktika”, it was <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the most basic element of metallic
protection for the imperial and thematic troops.</u></b> It was worn above the kavvadion.
However, unlike the kavvadion/bambakion, the lorikion is not mentioned in Nikephoros
Phokas’ “Strategiki Ekthesis/Praecepta Militaria” and this has baffled researchers for a
long time. Some scholars have suggested that Nikephoros’ treatise has to be taken
plainly literally, however while the single use of the nevrikon/kavvadion is also mentioned
and allowed by Leo’s “Taktika” as a last resort, the presence of the chainmaille is
stressed upon as mandatory. Hence, it makes for a direct and unwarranted contradiction
between the two works, which were written only a few decades apart. Besides,
“Strategiki Ekthesis” also omits the mention of use of metallic helmets. That is also very
problematic to be taken in literal terms, and should trigger any serious researcher to
realise that something else is at hand with Nikephoros’ treatise. Because, while it is true
that - in some cases - a large infantry scutum shield could substitute the role of metallic
torso armour, how can anyone suggest that the infantry of the strongest and most
advanced army of its time went to battle without any metallic headgear? This is certainly
a very far stretched claim and by no means plausible or logical for a pre-gunpowder era
army. The Macedonian era byzantine army was not large in numbers, far from it;
however, it was perhaps the richest of its time and the richest the Byzantine Empire ever
fielded. Soldiers without helmets can make for light reserve infantry; not for the cream of
the crop of medieval warfare. It is therefore far more possible that the “Strategiki
Ekthesis” which was written only a few decades later than “Taktika”, and is much shorter
in length, is simply a supplementary and updated work, meant to emphasise on selected
aspects, which were considered worth of highlight and clarification based on the
increased military experience the byzantine army had acquired in the 10th century AD.
Hence, such basic and fundamental armour elements as the chaimaille, that were
already mentioned in Leo’s treatise, which must have already been a common read for
every general of the period, was considered a standard and common knowledge and
thus omitted for the sake of brevity. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">5. The epilorikon imation (επιλωρικόν ιμάτιον) meaning “over-the-lorikion cloth”. The
epilorikon is mentioned very briefly in Leo’s Taktika (diataxis V-VI) and within one very
specific context only: as a simple fabric cloth worn above the lorikion (hence why it’s is
called “epi-lorikon”, meaning “over the lorikion”). It is highly likely that the epilorikon was
in fact very rarely used in real practice, as it is certainly not considered mandatory in the
treatises and it is completely absent from any surviving iconographical source. However,
the epilorikon was definitely just a fabric surcoat; not a padded gambeson. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">6. The byzantine "phrygian" helmet. Based on 11th-12th c. findings at Branicevo and
Pernik castles, but researchers soundly claim it must have existed since as early as 10th
c. It also matches with pictorial evidence from the same period. </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghuyF2zMI4HAA_HuWJX50ZSgjILtXS6a9eNx5LXjcPnqVqQfxh3VEG1ER2rWBPUbygfl96u8dvhMMmSbRSH5w3yfo4_5BF3ScKiZBcc-xEQBOB9MNgjGjjmxAjnCBjrJf6fkWmi1vvd7hndBMqQuMGIfwQVhoObvHdo0GTi-S0wFz8UOQ9xh7k_jWa/s500/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="301" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghuyF2zMI4HAA_HuWJX50ZSgjILtXS6a9eNx5LXjcPnqVqQfxh3VEG1ER2rWBPUbygfl96u8dvhMMmSbRSH5w3yfo4_5BF3ScKiZBcc-xEQBOB9MNgjGjjmxAjnCBjrJf6fkWmi1vvd7hndBMqQuMGIfwQVhoObvHdo0GTi-S0wFz8UOQ9xh7k_jWa/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">7. The peritrachelion alysideton (περιτραχήλιον αλισύδετον), which accounts for a
chainmaille aventail, is also mentioned in the treatises described to have inner padding
of linen and wool (Taktika, diataxis V). </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">8. The spathion (σπαθίον). <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The standard and most common byzantine sword,
developed from the late roman spatha</u></b>, with a typical globe-shaped pommel and short
cross-guard. The design follows pictorial evidence from ivory carvings and iconography
as well as archeological evidence, which confirm the former. Sylloge Tacticorum
(diataxis XXXVIII) prescribes the length of the spathion at four spithamai. With one
spithami being literally the span of an extended human hand from the thumb to the little
finger, one spithami equals approx. 21-22cm. For reference, the Galovo sword is exactly
89cm long (89/4 = 22,25), hence the Sylloge text is also backed up by archeological
evidence. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">9. The shield: aspis (ασπίς) also skoutarion (σκουτάριον). The design is based on
manuscript miniatures and ivory carvings from the period. Therefore, the ratio of the
shield’s size to the soldier’s body is not attempted to be realistic, due to the fact that the
debate on the size of the byzantine teardrop shield has not been possible to settle. More
specifically, Sylloge Tacticorum (diataxis XXXVIII) talks about “rectangular” or “triangular”
shields, that have a “narrow corner” end at the bottom. It is assumed that this is an
imprecise but close enough description of a kite or teardrop shield, which appears in
imagery sources from the period. The anonymous author provides the length of those
shields at 6 spithamai (= approx. 1,33 meters). Considering that 1,33 meters would
essentially cover up 2/3 of an average adult male person’s body, this measurement is in
fact double the size of shields that are found on ivory carvings and manuscript
miniatures, where shields have a ratio of no more than 1/3 of the person’s body. Finally,
Sylloge provides no measurements for the width of those shields, but one can safely
assume that it had to - at least - cover the width of a soldier’s torso. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">10. Spear and spear-head. “Winged” type of spear-heads were found at the Serce
Limani site dated in 11th century. Sylloge Tacticorum (diataxis XXXVIII) gives <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the length
of the spear between eight and ten pechai</u></b> (πήχαι) with one peches (πήχης) counting
46cm, meaning that a spear could be up to four-and-a-half meters long.</span></p><p><span class="a" style="background-color: #f3f4fa; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; color: #231f20; height: 1px; left: 674px; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 1653px; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: 16px;"><br /></span></p><p><span class="a" style="background-color: #f3f4fa; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; color: #231f20; font-family: ff2, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 102px; height: 1px; left: 674px; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 1653px; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: 16px;"><br /></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEAn6m3qXfY_t5L7K0Og7pfDcazqTAR3oF0uSFE1yA_G6R1xWFyogu4mmkrqv5UGuklh0-fmNWxqKrk4CM-aRr2L1ZnONqotk76JAinjBonQCC35YDibNWCBZtOzr2vut5CeqNSa0zDFJaKRhilONjw4xxYpQJ8BoC36fzBCYi1d3lfS-FpcJTLX82/s686/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="686" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEAn6m3qXfY_t5L7K0Og7pfDcazqTAR3oF0uSFE1yA_G6R1xWFyogu4mmkrqv5UGuklh0-fmNWxqKrk4CM-aRr2L1ZnONqotk76JAinjBonQCC35YDibNWCBZtOzr2vut5CeqNSa0zDFJaKRhilONjw4xxYpQJ8BoC36fzBCYi1d3lfS-FpcJTLX82/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In “Picture 2” we have the heavier version of the byzantine infantry and cavalry
soldier, which also matches that of the mounted “kataphraktoi”. The element that
makes for this heavier armour is non-other than the inclusion of the klivanion
(κλιβάνιον), which unlike the lorikion is prescribed as an additional and non necessary part of armour for the main bulk of the byzantine army (but necessary
and of course defining for the “kataphraktoi” cavalry). </span><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">1. The klivanion (κλιβάνιον). Based on reconstructions of lamellar armour found at
Veliki Preslav and other byzantine sites dating from 10th up to 12th centuries. This
particular binding of the lamellar torso is deemed to be the most historically accurate
conjecture about the high byzantine period lamellar armour; for two main reasons. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A)
The lames are based on archeological evidence and the binding matches with pictorial
sources from the period (iconography and ivory carvings) and b) it is, practically and
realistically, the most viable possibility for this type of armour to allow its wearer to
survive a fight, as modern experience from private experiments and the practice of re enactment sparring has proven. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">According to Leo VI Wise’s “Taktika” the klivanion was
worn on top of both the kavvadion and the lorikion, as an extra and ultimate protection.
Meaning it was not a necessary or mandatory part of the imperial or thematic soldier’s
defensive gear, but it could be worn by the heaviest or elite troops and of course by
higher officers. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><u>- Other byzantine armour elements not included in this presentation:</u></span></b><span style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">It is well sourced and known that the byzantine <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">offensive weaponry also included maces
and axes</u></b>, non-included in this illustration. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Moreover, the treatises mention other intricate
amour details such as iron protection for the lower arms (χειρόψελλα) and the legs
(ποδόψελλα) as well as a very intriguing mention of “iron sandals with hobnails” (πέδιλα
σιδηρά μετά καρφίων αυτών) by Leo's “Taktika”. However, we have no surviving
archeological evidence for any of the above, and since iconographical sources provide
us with anything but further proof for those armour elements, it was decided to omit them
from this basic but concise presentation, which opted instead to present what we know
that, for certain, existed and was in use during the period of interest.
The kendouklon (κένδουκλον): The kendouklon is another element of equipment
mentioned in the treatises that we opted to leave aside from our presentation. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBXTSWqQrgt8iFWtBTdJ71x0ucivlDpo88BKGMuH0HgaI5htjnzpbQeqkrcOHL10aHh1WxlP604vOpmfRNfznZkwq-K9Adxu7jtdNwTTwDl3FowZSF9SqCdHpvudsxIwpkRSzs0zTXJ7i0zlZ8G4F2WlPwnBoyg74QhEEimOPbTDGliHo1x7o_XjfF/s501/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="501" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBXTSWqQrgt8iFWtBTdJ71x0ucivlDpo88BKGMuH0HgaI5htjnzpbQeqkrcOHL10aHh1WxlP604vOpmfRNfznZkwq-K9Adxu7jtdNwTTwDl3FowZSF9SqCdHpvudsxIwpkRSzs0zTXJ7i0zlZ8G4F2WlPwnBoyg74QhEEimOPbTDGliHo1x7o_XjfF/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">However,
we can safely state that its description matches with that of <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a thick cloak made by raw
wool</u></b>, which was worn above the whole armour as an overcoat during marches or simply
when the army was on standby for a battle. It is described as being wide (φαρδύ), worn
above the whole armour and it was from the same material as the nevrikon, hence thick
raw wool (Taktika, diataxis V). This description matches with the typical shepherd’s cloak
that was widespread in the Balkans from medieval up to later modern times (images 1,
2, 3.<br /></span><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Sources:
1) Λέοντος Αυτοκράτορος Τακτικά - Emperor Leo’s Taktika (written in 895-908 AD).
2) Νικηφόρου Δεσπότου Έκθεσις Στρατηγική – Despot Nikephoros’s Ekthesis Strategiki
(latin: Praecepta Militaria) (written in ca. 965)
3) Sylloge Tacticorum additions to Taktika (written sometime in 10th century AD)
Bibliography:
4) Piotr L. Grotowski, (2010), “Arms and Armour of the Warrior Saints – tradition and
innovation in byzantine Iconography (843-1261)”, (Leiden/Boston, Brill)
5) Deyan Rabovyanov, “Early Medieval Sword Guards from Bulgaria”, Archeologia
Bulgarica, XV, 2 (2011), 73-86
6) Eric McGeer, (2008), “Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth - Byzantine Warfare in the Tenth
Century”, (Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection)
7) Raffaele D’Amato, Dragana Lj. Spasić-Đurić, “The Phrygian helmet in Byzantium:
archaeology and iconography in the light of recent finds from Braničevo”, AMM, 2018,
XIV: 29-6</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPjTa8UZv8fdGuZwOkslMwHmUwuF7UUnCGi57NAuGlYgeDy4w5kLHpid5rSvC4hQj_bLZVXP2-9_05wJPU4oGRGucMtR9jIEKehAzEehdRo3a3ecOvWHifVNu09SQ8ye10BpS1P9WYteKQtkxxrbSlcYEyAUr6atitJ68FsqcUmmVnmR-CnREcKzqA/s719/Minds.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="719" data-original-width="497" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPjTa8UZv8fdGuZwOkslMwHmUwuF7UUnCGi57NAuGlYgeDy4w5kLHpid5rSvC4hQj_bLZVXP2-9_05wJPU4oGRGucMtR9jIEKehAzEehdRo3a3ecOvWHifVNu09SQ8ye10BpS1P9WYteKQtkxxrbSlcYEyAUr6atitJ68FsqcUmmVnmR-CnREcKzqA/s16000/Minds.jpg" /></a></div><p><br /></p><p>More <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360400342_Dandoulakis_J_-_Byzantine_Army_-_The_Concise_10th-11th_c_AD_Imperial_Soldier_edit_upd" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">https://www.researchgate.net/publication</span></a></p></div>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-54024649519226953822022-06-27T20:53:00.006-07:002022-06-27T20:58:07.364-07:00Coptic Spell: For a Man to Obtain a Male Lover, Egypt<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSAg2ZkUOVhdHZM8aFr6B-Mm9KeJ6eNY2jkpWeGORjoYeHl0ARoEwwMxidrknfhUtIe8nZYoa26r3_gi0L1V0nKzDpIYE9MVusJ7JyGQPwqbartI3ZFpdQvyl6X4kqdxINfTzR8ig5rPY/s1600/11greece.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSAg2ZkUOVhdHZM8aFr6B-Mm9KeJ6eNY2jkpWeGORjoYeHl0ARoEwwMxidrknfhUtIe8nZYoa26r3_gi0L1V0nKzDpIYE9MVusJ7JyGQPwqbartI3ZFpdQvyl6X4kqdxINfTzR8ig5rPY/s1600/11greece.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><strong style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><u>Orestes and Pylades</u></span></strong><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: &quot; font-size: 20px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The relationship between these two men was celebrated by Greek scholars as a tale of the wonder of homoerotic romance.</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span><span style="color: black;"></span><br />
<br /><br />
<br />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;">One of the great problems in studying the history of sexuality
in the past, as with other areas of human personal life, is that
the vast majority of sources come from sources left by social
elites. In many areas and periods only the elites could write,
and even where a wider section of the population could write (as,
probably, in classical Greece), the texts that have been preserved,
usually by monastic copying and in monastic libraries for Greek
texts, were works produced by the elites.</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;">In Christian Egypt (or "Coptic Egypt") there seems
to have been </span><span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; line-height: 16px;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">fairly widespread literacy</u></b></span><span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"> - in both Greek and Coptic
languages - and much popular material has survived on papyrus.
The particular climate of Egypt has alone made this possible.
We are in a position then to explore aspects of Christian society
in Egypt which remain obscure elsewhere. </span></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;">One set of sources which
has been made available to English readers are the various collection
of ritual "spells". These texts,</span><span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; line-height: 16px;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;"> dating from the first
to the eleventh century</u></b></span><span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;">, show a religious life quite different
from that of the elite theologians who were writing at the same
time. See for these texts - Marvin Meyer and Richard Smith, eds.,Ancient Christian Magic: Coptic texts of Ritual Power,
(San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994)</span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><br />
</span><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face="Trebuchet,Tahoma,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;">One of the spells translated in this volume is for a man to
obtain a male lover: evidence of a homosexual sub-culture, neither
philosophic nor literary which we may believe existed at other
times and places in the ancient world, but which has left little
evidence.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b></b><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br />
<b></b><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br />
</span><div class="H_body_text" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 12px; margin: 12px 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">
Description: vellum, 8x10.5 cm, originally folded to 2.5x 1.3
cm (by the evidence of creases); perhaps 6th century </span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><br />
</span><div class="H_body_text" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 12px; margin: 12px 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">
Bibliography: Paul C. Smither, "A Coptic Love Charm", Journal of Egyptian Archeology 25 (1939< 173-174 </span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><br />
</span><div class="H_body_text" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 12px; margin: 12px 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">
Translator: David Frankfurter</span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b></b><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br />
</span><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;">This text contains a same-sex love spell commissioned by one
Papalo to "bind" another man, Phello (this name literally
means "the old man" or "the monk"), by means
of a variety of powerful utterances (especially ROUS). Besides
extending the scope of erotic binding spells in late antiquity,
this spell also employs formulae common to several Coptic texts
of ritual power. The folds in the text and the description of
the text's depositing (lines 6-7) imply that this spell was intended
to be placed near the beloved man.<br />
</span></div>
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><br />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvPimmwk7QYWor4fcCSscrl1bcCwuu2xJfS5Pm8W_CqwHdwl53ypxCpV2ck4q806p_x8TbfiuTUh5NHwg-HcGKl_5BNo_MJSuWna0GOZXhnWXJAeb03AzWGuhMoCA8qkIJTP3a96LMir5ncGYZ5GCS6m960uOu2VHPwC62uDyPjmDYOcNvgeq8u-2p/s517/11minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="213" data-original-width="517" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvPimmwk7QYWor4fcCSscrl1bcCwuu2xJfS5Pm8W_CqwHdwl53ypxCpV2ck4q806p_x8TbfiuTUh5NHwg-HcGKl_5BNo_MJSuWna0GOZXhnWXJAeb03AzWGuhMoCA8qkIJTP3a96LMir5ncGYZ5GCS6m960uOu2VHPwC62uDyPjmDYOcNvgeq8u-2p/s16000/11minds.jpg" /></a></div><b><br /></b></span><span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-variant: normal; line-height: 16px;"><span face="Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #363636; display: inline; float: none; font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><u>Spell 84: For a Man to Obtain a Male Lover </u></span></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><br />
<span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"><b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br /></b></span><span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"><b>6th Century</b></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"><b>TEXT<br />
<br />
<br />
</b>+CELTATALBABAL [.]KARASHNEIFE[.]NNAS'KNEKIE, by the power
of Yao Sabaoth</span></div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</div>
<center style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"> (ring signs)<br />
</span>
</span></center>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><br />
</span><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><br />
</span><div class="H_body_text" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 12px; margin: 12px 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">
+++I adjure you by your powers and your amulets and<br />
places where you dwell and your names, that just as I take you <br />
a put you at the door and the pathway of Phello, son of Maure, <br />
(so alos) you must take his heart and his mind; you must dominate <br />
his entire body.</span></div><blockquote class="H_body_text" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 16px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">
When he (tries to) stand, you must not allow him to stand<br />
When he (tries to) sit, you must not allow him to sit<br />
When he lies down to sleep, you must not allow him to sleep.</span></blockquote><blockquote class="H_body_text" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 16px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">
He must seek me from town to town, from city to city,<br />
from field to filed, from region to region,<br />
until he comes to me and subjects himself under my feet-<br />
me, Papapolo son of Noe-<br />
while his hand is full of all goodness,<br />
until I satisfy with him the desire of my heart<br />
and the demand of my soul,<br />
with pleasant desire and love unending,<br />
right now, right now, at once! Do my work</span></blockquote>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><br />
</span><div class="H_body_text" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 12px; margin: 12px 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">
Notes: </span></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><br />
</span><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="H_body_text" face=""trebuchet" , "tahoma" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 16px; text-decoration: none;"> The reference to "his hand full of all goodness" may
be connected with the Hebrew use of "hand" for "penis". </span></div>
<b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br /><br />
<span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/pwh/index-med.asp#c6" target="_blank">Sourcebooks.fordham.edu</a><br />
<br />
<br />
<a href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/pwh/copticspell.asp" target="_blank">Sourcebooks.fordham.edu</a></span><br />
<br /><br />Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-4388790697642998642022-05-22T18:46:00.000-07:002022-05-22T18:46:49.336-07:00Byzantine Armor, Part 2<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1-qr90Q8guTwQVugEJZyTgFq0SIbSYImbUFybVlfm7kFxjgtfXTIRJ5dtYwW8oJxJA9AmA0czoBDTG36X7U57Ce1pSNZvsAtdCa3GNJJB6hURH8jB60b5ncLLbNckHXtMcq3cAxkD2nNsRC9AOh1oE3T-K55zO2Ycnzm9c-hOznPtuQ5F9U_vuKyx/s481/11minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="460" data-original-width="481" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1-qr90Q8guTwQVugEJZyTgFq0SIbSYImbUFybVlfm7kFxjgtfXTIRJ5dtYwW8oJxJA9AmA0czoBDTG36X7U57Ce1pSNZvsAtdCa3GNJJB6hURH8jB60b5ncLLbNckHXtMcq3cAxkD2nNsRC9AOh1oE3T-K55zO2Ycnzm9c-hOznPtuQ5F9U_vuKyx/s16000/11minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><u><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>You can find anything on eBay</b></span></u></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTh14YhindpLzXNGOQCeR7YBRYQ3_nwk1azsxpOuflgV8jz3IPRgBFd64B6zJz-BQVEtwDFR3ztZSzFV15cbgRCmTy178-bitxDGx_IjryKcgxkY3zZhlv0QgdN1bRwQNUaQH71YOjwMNDfXbEQgbdBRrCf4MQjvQv8O09GNE_yBBcYDCYhpOCFdkc/s404/11minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="259" data-original-width="404" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTh14YhindpLzXNGOQCeR7YBRYQ3_nwk1azsxpOuflgV8jz3IPRgBFd64B6zJz-BQVEtwDFR3ztZSzFV15cbgRCmTy178-bitxDGx_IjryKcgxkY3zZhlv0QgdN1bRwQNUaQH71YOjwMNDfXbEQgbdBRrCf4MQjvQv8O09GNE_yBBcYDCYhpOCFdkc/s16000/11minds.jpg" /></a></div><br /><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhs7Ccz3TCiHTX8GXYsviDotLzRTW04uO77c5tR_S23-xoIxmAzOgt4xWdhzTlBN6woWRuoCA-D4AwMGeLKl-pPGZYUecrfkUZC-7OoM_GssCv4H33m66hX7WdsxU8yWyFjU_UNJRtDeej7XcFtl4y7eQi4YOn08-6VAyXSudWD6Ju-Pu03KmuPBOBf/s500/11minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="377" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhs7Ccz3TCiHTX8GXYsviDotLzRTW04uO77c5tR_S23-xoIxmAzOgt4xWdhzTlBN6woWRuoCA-D4AwMGeLKl-pPGZYUecrfkUZC-7OoM_GssCv4H33m66hX7WdsxU8yWyFjU_UNJRtDeej7XcFtl4y7eQi4YOn08-6VAyXSudWD6Ju-Pu03KmuPBOBf/s16000/11minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Armour Byzantine #2. X-XII A.D.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">€ 268</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Byzantium / Balkans / Rus</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">X-XII century</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Specific kind of lamellar reconstructed by Timothy Dawson basing on medieval miniatures.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Possible options: different colours of leather, shoulder cops, spaulders and tassets, leather scallops.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Scales may be riveted to the base.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Source: http://truehistoryshop.com/shop/armour-byzantine-2</span></div></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJNkY0qsxCygq32gC0-8FGIhVLLt48maq93DDdBwK74iBsEZ3vFMhiya24H8ptVGRl-5NX3OvFNEsgR3Fpq7PLyUwVLeiLQSDK0Y9K89khyagv1csJjO8AGd-3z0BacUoSVOU3tUs_X3f_60bRm8gS5gaIKtcIzsmBqkkeucyWOaFwFLHx97O3r7ZE/s536/11minds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="536" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJNkY0qsxCygq32gC0-8FGIhVLLt48maq93DDdBwK74iBsEZ3vFMhiya24H8ptVGRl-5NX3OvFNEsgR3Fpq7PLyUwVLeiLQSDK0Y9K89khyagv1csJjO8AGd-3z0BacUoSVOU3tUs_X3f_60bRm8gS5gaIKtcIzsmBqkkeucyWOaFwFLHx97O3r7ZE/s16000/11minds.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><h1 class="product-details__product-title ec-header-h3" itemprop="name" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; clear: none; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 16px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: center; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Byzantine armor - Byzantine - 10-12 century</span></h1></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="product-details-module product-details__product-price-row" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; float: none; margin: 10px 0px 24px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; text-align: left; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; z-index: auto;"><div class="product-details-module__content" itemprop="offers" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Offer" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; float: none; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;"><div class="product-details__product-price ec-price-item" content="280" itemprop="price" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; float: none; font-weight: bold !important; margin: 0px 0px -8px; max-height: none; max-width: 296px; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; text-align: center; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;"><span class="details-product-price__value ec-price-item notranslate" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; float: none; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0px 8px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">€280.00</span></span></div></div></div></div></blockquote><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="product-details-module product-details__product-price-row" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; float: none; margin: 10px 0px 24px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; text-align: left; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; z-index: auto;"><div class="product-details-module__content" itemprop="offers" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Offer" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; float: none; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;"><div itemprop="seller" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; float: none; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;"></div></div></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><h1 class="product-details__product-title ec-header-h3" itemprop="name" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; clear: none; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 16px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: left; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s;"><p style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s;"><span style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 600; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Armor description</span></span></p><p style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: -8px 0px 16px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Byzantine armor from depictions. The set includes the torso part, as well as shoulders and arms protections.</span></p><p style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: -8px 0px 16px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s;"><span style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 600; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">All our body armors are made to measurements.</span></span></p><p style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: -8px 0px 16px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 600; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;"></span>Please measure your total height, and your bust circumference, including your gambeson / tunic, if you wish to wear one under your metal armor. Then select the corresponding size range.<br style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal;" />Once we have received your order, we will tell you by e-mail what additional measurements are needed.<br style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal;" /><br style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal;" /><span style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 600; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; padding: 0px; position: static; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal; z-index: auto;">Mild steel, or Hardened steel?<br style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal;" /></span><br style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px solid rgb(51, 51, 51); box-shadow: none; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; opacity: 1; padding: 0px; transform-origin: center center; transform: none; transition: none 0s ease 0s; word-spacing: normal;" />You can select the desired material & thickness (mild steel - ST3 1mm or hardened steel - 65G 0,8mm)</span></p></h1></div><a href="https://www.living-history-market.com/store/Byzantine-armor-Byzantine-10-12-century-p357452962" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: medium;">living-history-market.com</span></a><br /><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhemiiWbbqaD6T4yeI65Kn6R34WI-pMOQCDb-HvFqrQTymlx0oB5pdDMizJ9-1-NLnHhHcQClBA-LbNIHgvqrTwh-Tz8JSAGnCS8aFmKicWwiSt37Pc6cJd5sjqwh0CmR8f9hwnM_NrYdU/s726/Byzantine+13th+century.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="726" data-original-width="501" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhemiiWbbqaD6T4yeI65Kn6R34WI-pMOQCDb-HvFqrQTymlx0oB5pdDMizJ9-1-NLnHhHcQClBA-LbNIHgvqrTwh-Tz8JSAGnCS8aFmKicWwiSt37Pc6cJd5sjqwh0CmR8f9hwnM_NrYdU/s16000/Byzantine+13th+century.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face=""Segoe UI Historic", "Segoe UI", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-family: inherit; font-size: large; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;">Armor and helmet (13th - 15th centuries) at the Byzantine and Christian Museum of Athens</span></div><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-61915368336321981432022-04-24T15:36:00.003-07:002022-09-01T09:21:50.677-07:00Byzantine Prostitution and Sex Workers<img border="0" data-original-height="672" data-original-width="504" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSbMbswnD9wrLBoPn9nownSGv5NOG4t_6ex5cyQUOsjHy06Rak7zEJnm9UnrRpyKFc1O4EG46PLrmlCnAtEeZHkmkk18njQn46A7BN_BkOWhw7W6_FZCfWZxyh08dtyZiC9xJhMjkRJko9ITKW0l-coVM_BpNP-Hu51Ywob5YHK4M3b_GkhR2J0Vfk/s16000/11minds1.jpg" /><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #222222; text-align: center;">Circa 1890: French actress Sarah Bernhardt in costume as Emperess 'Theodora'. In her youth </span><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Theodora was made to work in a brothel. </span></span><br /><div><br /><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">By </span><strong style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Claudine Dauphin</strong><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222;" /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris</span><br /></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large; text-align: left;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large; text-align: left;">There were two categories of <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Byzantine harlots</u></b>: on the one hand, actresses and courtesans (scenicae), on the other, poor prostitutes (pornai) who fled from rural poverty and flocked to the great urban centres such as Constantinople and Jerusalem. There, even greater destitution pushed them straight into the rapacious hooks of crooks and pimps. </span></div><p></p><h3 style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; clear: both; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Actresses and courtesans</span></h3><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; color: #333333; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The scenicae were involved in a craft aimed primarily at theatre-goers. It has been described as a ‘closed craft’, since daughters took over from their mothers. The classic example is that of the mother of the future Empress Theodora who </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">put her three young daughters to work on the stage of licentious plays.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> The poet Horace described in his Satires (1.2.1) Syrian girls (whose name ambubaiae probably derived from the Syrian word for flute, abbut or ambut) livening up banquets by dancing lasciviously with castanets and accompanied by the sound of flutes. Suetonius simply equated these with prostitutes (Ner. 27). That is why Jacob, Bishop of Serûgh (451-521) in Mesopotamia warned in his Third Homily on the Spectacles of the Theatre against dancing, ‘mother of all lasciviousness’ which ‘incites by licentious gestures to commit odious acts’. A sixth-century mosaic in Madaba in Transjordan depicts a castanet-snapping dancer dressed in transparent muslin next to a satyr who is clearly sexually-roused.[7] </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; color: #333333; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">According to Bishop John of Ephesus’ fifth-century Lives of the Eastern Saints, Emperor Justinian’s consort was known to Syrian monks as ‘Theodora who came from the brothel’. Her career proves that Byzantine courtesans like the Ancient Greek hetairai could aspire to influential roles in high political spheres. Long before her puberty, Theodora worked in a Constantinopolitan brothel where, according to the court-historian Procopius of Caesarea’s Secret History, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">she was hired at a cheap rate by slaves</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> as all she could do then was to act the part of a ‘male prostitute’. As soon as she became sexually mature, she went on stage, but as she could play neither flute nor harp, nor even dance, she became a common courtesan. Once she had been promoted to the rank of actress, she stripped in front of the audience and lay down on the stage. Slaves emptied buckets of grain into her private parts which geese would peck at. She frequented banquets assiduously, offering herself to all and sundry, including servants. </span></span></p><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; color: #333333; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">She followed to Libya a lover who had been appointed Governor of Pentapolis. Soon, however, he threw her out, and she applied her talents in Alexandria and subsequently all over the East. Upon her return to Constantinople, she bewitched Justinian who was then still only the heir to the imperial throne. He elevated his mistress to Patrician rank. Upon the death of the Empress, his aunt and the wife of Justin II (who would never have allowed a courtesan at court), Justinian forced his uncle Justin II to abrogate the law which forbade senators to marry courtesans. Soon, he became co-emperor with his uncle and at the latter’s death, as sole emperor, immediately associated his wife to the throne (Anecd. 9.1-10). </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhy4tEfQNtff9vrvR5Z22SHesCswdOZRMPVqU6zfDDfgLi3qoF2sfpt9s37mo59Fcrh0qk3dsliFJYzXx4lKW3sKEMUCrXGKfUqS0vAfK8SaLdjhdGL5nn46zVXy81bJ26AopWYukrYwtsoKIFs3Yx_bFFVRf5nlJIfARTwPM_m45ZqHOOycoulF8dP/s474/11minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="317" data-original-width="474" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhy4tEfQNtff9vrvR5Z22SHesCswdOZRMPVqU6zfDDfgLi3qoF2sfpt9s37mo59Fcrh0qk3dsliFJYzXx4lKW3sKEMUCrXGKfUqS0vAfK8SaLdjhdGL5nn46zVXy81bJ26AopWYukrYwtsoKIFs3Yx_bFFVRf5nlJIfARTwPM_m45ZqHOOycoulF8dP/s16000/11minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><u>Pompeii brothel</u></span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;">The graffitis in the brothels depicted </span>instructions<span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> like 'Thrust slowly' or advertisement for a prostitute that said 'Euplia was here with two thousand beautiful men', and even listed prices like 'Euplia sucks for five dollars*' This shows that sex workers worked under pseudonyms or aliases. The wall paintings also ascertain that many male prostitutes also rendered their services in the sex trade.</span></b></span></div><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, "Bitstream Charter", serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p><h3 style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; clear: both; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><u>Poor prostitutes</u></span></h3><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Only a few courtesans could climb the social ladder in this phenomenal way. Most prostitutes who worked in brothels and tavernae and are described as pornai, were slaves or illiterate peasant girls like Mary the Egyptian who later became a holy hermit in the Judaean desert. Because neither hetairai nor pornai had any legal status, and since hetairai were also slaves belonging to a pimp or to a go-between, the distinction between courtesans and pornai was based entirely on their different financial worth. This aspect of the trade was inherent in the Latin name meretrix for prostitute, meaning </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">‘she who makes money from her body’. </u></b></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Three types of prices should be taken into consideration: the price for buying, the price for redeeming and the price for hiring. The peasants of the Constantinopolitan hinterland </span><b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">sold their daughters to pimps</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> for a few gold coins (solidi). Thereafter, clothes, shoes and a daily food-ration would be these miserable girls’ only ‘salary’. To redeem a young prostitute in Constantinople under the reign of Justinian was cheap (Novell. 39.2). It cost 5 solidi, thus only a little more than the amount needed to buy a camel (41/3 solidi) and a little less than for a she-ass (51/3 solidi) or a slave-boy (6 solidi) in Southern Palestine at the end of the sixth century or in the early seventh century. That women could be degraded to the extent of being ranked with beasts of burden tells us much about Byzantine society. </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Rome and Pompeii, the services of a ‘plebeia Venus’ cost generally two asses – no more than a loaf of bread or two cups of wine at the counter of a taverna. Whereas the most vulgar kind of prostitute would only cost 1 as (Martial claimed in Epig. 1.103.10: ‘You buy boiled chick peas for 1 as and you also make love for 1 as’), R. Duncan-Jones notes that the Pompeian charge could be as high as 16 asses or 4 sestercii.[8] In early seventh-century Alexandria, the average rate for hiring a prostitute is provided by the Life of John the Almsgiver. As a simple worker, the monk Vitalius earned daily 1 keration (which was worth 72 folleis) of which the smallest part (1 follis) enabled him to eat hot beans. With the remaining </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">71 folleis, he paid for the services of a prostitute</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> which being a saint, he naturally did not use, for his aim was to convert them to a Christian life. </span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFHV2RCKDmBDUkS4c01xq12kkeM7hNViOovH8CYL4zTQC5hkpaitqLlVpzg2YmVAcD0F1X1ymdR4QQCAlhfw4MiZkGv82lHBs2xaq4JnuxZQTO_b3Zx3cCzOHjjjrc8bjEOsRArs2VC_7lADNT01hJypNrjbF6NEi1PCIt2fzWgMj8qKPcaof5inz4/s500/11minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="319" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFHV2RCKDmBDUkS4c01xq12kkeM7hNViOovH8CYL4zTQC5hkpaitqLlVpzg2YmVAcD0F1X1ymdR4QQCAlhfw4MiZkGv82lHBs2xaq4JnuxZQTO_b3Zx3cCzOHjjjrc8bjEOsRArs2VC_7lADNT01hJypNrjbF6NEi1PCIt2fzWgMj8qKPcaof5inz4/s16000/11minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #0b1822; text-align: start;">At the </span><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">'</span><a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/2355219/pornographic-pompeii-wall-paints-reveal-the-raunchy-services-offered-in-ancient-roman-brothels-2000-years-ago/" rel="nofollow noopener" style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(51, 122, 183); box-sizing: border-box; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="The Sun">Lupanar of Pompei</a><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">'</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #0b1822; text-align: start;">, a famous brothel comprising ten rooms, was extremely popular with men. The walls of the ancient brothel feature a number of erotic paintings that depict group sex and many other sexual acts, indicating a myriad of sexual services that the brothel offered. These murals are almost pornographic, illustrating fair-skinned women in the nude, with styled hair and assuming various sexual positions with young, tanned, athletically-built men.</span></b></span></div><br /><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, "Bitstream Charter", serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Lack of clients over several days meant poverty and hunger. Thus a harlot in Emesa, modern Homs in central Syria, had only tasted water for three days running, to which St Symeon Salos remedied by bringing her cooked food, loaves of bread and a pitcher of wine. On days when she earned a lot, Mary the Egyptian prostitute in Alexandria ate fish, drank wine excessively and sang dissolute songs presumably during banquets. In </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">denouncing the Byzantine courtesans’ obscene lust for gold</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, the sixth-century rhetor Agathias Scholasticus echoed the authors of the fourth-century BC Athenian Middle Comedy. In particular, the poet Alexis claimed that ‘Above all, they [the prostitutes] are concerned with earning money’.[9] Sometimes a prostitute’s jewellery was her sole wealth. When in 539, the citizens of Edessa, modern Urfa in south-eastern Turkey, decided to redeem their fellow-citizens who were held prisoners by the Persians, the prostitutes (who did not have enough cash) handed over their jewels (Procop. De Bell. Pers. 2.13.4). </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is probably because prostitution could occasionally be very lucrative and thus beneficial through taxation, that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Christian Byzantine State turned a blind eye.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> Since the Roman Republic, according to Tacitus (Ann. II.85.1-2), male and female prostitutes had been recorded nominally in registers which were kept under the guardianship of the aediles. From the reign of Caligula, prostitutes were taxed (Suet. Cal. 40). </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Christianity’s condemnation of any type of non-procreative sexual intercourse brought about the outlawing of homosexuality in the Western Empire in the third century and consequently of male prostitution. In 390, an edict of Emperor Theodosius I threatened with the death penalty the forcing or </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">selling of males into prostitution</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> (C.Th. 9.7.6). Behind this edict lay not a disgust of prostitution, but the fact that the body of a man would be used in homosexual intercourse in the same way as that of a woman. And that was unacceptable, for had St Augustine not stated that ‘the body of a man is as superior to that of a woman, as the soul is to the body’ (De Mend. 7.10)? </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In application of Theodosius’ edict in Rome, the prostitutes were dragged out of the male brothels and burnt alive under the eyes of a cheering mob. Nevertheless, male prostitution remained legal in the pars orientalis of the empire. From the reign of Constantine I, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">an imperial tax was levied on homosexual prostitution</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, this constituting a legal safeguard for those who could therefore engage in it ‘with impunity’. Evagrius emphasises in his Ecclesiastical History (3.39-41) that no emperor ever omitted to collect this tax. Its suppression at the beginning of the sixth century removed imperial protection from homosexual prostitution. In 533, Justinian placed all homosexual relations under the same category as adultery and subjected both to death (Inst. 4.18.4). </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Already in 529, Justinian had attempted to put a curb on female child prostitution by penalising all those engaged in that trade, in particular the owners of brothels (CJ 8.51.3). In 535, he invalidated the contracts by which the pimps of Constantinople put to work peasant girls whom they had bought from their parents (Novell. 14). The prostitution of adult women, however, does not appear to have unduly worried the imperial legislator. The punishment inflicted on pimps who ran the child prostitution network, varied according to their wealth and respectability. Paradoxically, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Byzantine administration considered the job of Imperial Inspector of the Brothels as eminently honourable</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, so much so that in 630 the Bishop of Palermo was appointed to this post. </span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi16H5P6wRfjm7DFF_k6XiXClSNJKVnlsBQBib_ymroDPyTZWbJwh3jCm8D6BvZ64sm-vJ-BUNf1tRXNd0KRDmdDteSZ9MJpiGK7vzjIXRzIlojus_xDng-JiHb65ua10A9A9wN2NwcOD-guWGw11s8v6Z9qYGwao9L4KJYQ3MAPXM7Ex4lm1ztIIef/s500/11minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="444" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi16H5P6wRfjm7DFF_k6XiXClSNJKVnlsBQBib_ymroDPyTZWbJwh3jCm8D6BvZ64sm-vJ-BUNf1tRXNd0KRDmdDteSZ9MJpiGK7vzjIXRzIlojus_xDng-JiHb65ua10A9A9wN2NwcOD-guWGw11s8v6Z9qYGwao9L4KJYQ3MAPXM7Ex4lm1ztIIef/s16000/11minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Most sex workers were subjected to slavery. Biblically and historically, the ancient attitude towards slaves has always been indifferent, so the conditions of the women that worked in the brothel were barely of concern to the brothel owners, clients on anyone else. They would display no empathy to those that were 'beneath' them and only show them disdain or violent outbursts.</b></span></span></div><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, "Bitstream Charter", serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p><h2 style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; clear: both; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><u>The recruiting of prostitutes</u></span></h2><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The evidence of Justinianic legislation brings to light a change in child prostitution from Roman times when paedophilia focused on small boys much praised notably by Tibullus (Eleg. 1.9.53), to the Byzantine period when </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">little girls found themselves at the centre of a prostitutional web.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> Some of the peasant girls recruited by pimps in the hinterland of Constantinople, were not even ten years old. St Mary the Egyptian admits that she left her parents and her village at the age of twelve and went to Alexandria where she lost both her virginity and her honour by prostituting herself (and enjoying it – which in the eyes of prudish Byzantines was the ultimate sin). </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Abandoned children supplied to a large extent the prostitution market. Justin Martyr had observed that nearly all newborn babes who had been exposed, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">‘boys as well as girls, will be used as prostitutes’ </u></b><span style="background-color: white;">(1 Apol. 27). This entailed the risk of incest which obsessed Christian theologians: ‘How many fathers, forgetting the children they abandoned, unknowingly have sexual relations with a son who is a prostitute or a daughter become a harlot?’, asked Clement of Alexandria (Paed. 3.3). </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The patristic and rabbinic ban on birth-control except for abstinence post partum and whilst breast-feeding, as well as the failure both to enforce adherence to the ecclesiastical calendar in marital intercourse or complete abstinence as advocated by Lactantius (Divin. Inst. 6.20.25), resulted in an increase of unwanted infants who joined the small victims of poverty on </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Byzantine prostitution market. </u></b><span style="background-color: white;">In 329, Constantine I decreed that a newborn could be sold by its parents in the event of dire poverty. </span></span></p><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A law of 428 cited poverty again as the main reason for the exploitation of poor girls by pimps. A century later, the Byzantine historian Malalas emphasised that it was only the poor who sold their daughters to pimps (Chronogr. 18). It was also out of want and hunger that a desperate Christianised Arab woman offered her body to Father Sissinius, a hermit who lived in a cave near the River Jordan at the end of the sixth century. When Sissinius asked her why she prostituted herself, her answer was limited to a pathetic: ‘Because I am hungry’ (Mosch. Prat. Spir. 136). Likewise, during the 1914-1918 war in Palestine, hunger forced adolescent girls to sell themselves to the German and Turkish troops. </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgP4V-aYdkJ_lvz25SCtz7F9SYM2GI3C_JfAjyyCiAs4lBgVLAd8c6UPFufJyvlODb8RIl6WMf6PSOtr94ffMykQwMP34QqXdIYjIAywnbG9Jul90PisOGwmMPHkSH7MJUYL1NTMlVeaDQ8N924Ul-Rz_oqT_Ixhb2SaBmocA-zt2XHSKJfZt7mM22R/s1034/11minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1034" data-original-width="670" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgP4V-aYdkJ_lvz25SCtz7F9SYM2GI3C_JfAjyyCiAs4lBgVLAd8c6UPFufJyvlODb8RIl6WMf6PSOtr94ffMykQwMP34QqXdIYjIAywnbG9Jul90PisOGwmMPHkSH7MJUYL1NTMlVeaDQ8N924Ul-Rz_oqT_Ixhb2SaBmocA-zt2XHSKJfZt7mM22R/w416-h640/11minds1.jpg" width="416" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Women who took to working on the streets of Pompeii would usually wait around the curb or other remote locations like graveyards or public baths. In larger cities, women had autonomy over the sex trade and basically employed themselves without the need for a pimp and they comprised of mostly freed slaves or poor women. </b></span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><h2 style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; clear: both; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><u>Prostitution, Baths and illness</u></span></h2><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Famous courtesans and common harlots, all met in the public Baths which were already frequented in the Roman period by </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">prostitutes of both sexes.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> Some of these baths were strictly for prostitutes and respectable ladies were not to be seen near them (Mart. Epigr. 3.93). Men went there not to bathe, but to entertain their mistresses as in sixteenth-century Italian bagnios. The fourth-to-sixth-century Baths uncovered in Ashqelon in 1986 by the Harvard-Chicago Expedition appear to have been of that type. The excavator’s hypothesis is supported both by a Greek exhortation to ‘Enter and enjoy…’ which is identical to an inscription found in </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a Byzantine bordello in Ephesus, and by a gruesome discovery.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The bones of </span><b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">nearly 100 infants were crammed in a sewer</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> under the bathhouse, with a gutter running along its well-plastered bottom. The sewer had been clogged with refuse sometime in the sixth century. Mixed with domestic rubbish – potsherds, animal bones, murex shells and coins – the infant bones were for the most part intact. Infant bones are fragile and tend to fragment when disturbed or moved for secondary burial. The good condition of the Ashqelon infant bones indicates that the infants had been thrown into the drain soon after death with their soft tissues still intact. The examination of these bones by the Expedition’s osteologist, Professor Patricia Smith of the Hadassah Medical School – Hebrew University of Jerusalem, revealed that all the infants were approximately of the same size and had the same degree of dental development. Neonatal lines in the teeth of babies prove the latters’ survival for longer than three days after birth. The absence of neonatal lines in the teeth of the Ashqelon babies reinforces the hypothesis of death at birth. </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Whilst it is conceivable that the infants found in the drain were stillborn, their number, age and condition strongly suggest that they were killed and thrown into the drain immediately after birth.[11] Thus, the prostitutes of Ashqelon used the Baths not only for hooking clients but also for surreptitiously </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">disposing of unwanted births </u></b><span style="background-color: white;">in the din of the crowded bathing halls. It is plausible that the monks and rabbis were aware of this and that this (and not only the fear of temptation) was their main reason for equating baths with lust. </span></span></p><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In the eyes of the pious Jews of Byzantine Palestine, any public bathhouse which was not used for ritual purification (mikveh) was tainted with idolatry, not only because it belonged to Gentiles, but also because a statue of Venus stood at the entrance of many bathhouses. The statue of Venus greeting the users of the Baths of Aphrodite at Ptolemais-‘Akko which the Jewish Patriarch Gamaliel II regularly frequented, was invoked by Proclus the Philosopher to accuse Gamaliel of idolatry. The Patriarch succeeded in clearing himself of this charge by demonstrating that the statue of Aphrodite simply adorned the Baths and in no sense was an idol (Mishna, Abodah Zarah 3.4). </span></p><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Nevertheless, Venus which Lucretius (4.1071) had dubbed Volgivaga – ‘the street walker’ – was the patron of prostitutes who celebrated her feast on 23 April late into the Byzantine period. This, too, must explain the intense hostility of some rabbis towards the public baths of the Gentiles over which the goddess ruled both in marmore and in corpore. Since Biblical times, lust had always been intimately associated with the idolatrous worship of the ashera – a crude representation of the Babylonian goddess of fertility Ishtar who had become the Canaanite, Sidonian and Philistine Astarte and the Syrian Atargatis (1 Kgs 14.15) – as well as with the green tree under which an idol was placed (1 Kgs 14.23; Ez 6.13). Had the prophet Jeremiah (2.20) not accused Jerusalem of prostituting herself: ‘Yea, upon every high hill / and under every green tree, / you bowed down as a harlot’? </span></p><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1IVKBFBVyytbA0jc2zmVk1bJCbMtE_gFg5ISd_8dacbRIUPtdy01zSxyHM1D1PlU1Nb9Xzj4gT7D_vH3kl8lS9msSlOFxiy3KuSnhsl9T8FNnjbKzwhoLjmp5ye1FeG_1F11ccyDXY6ZuWyP6TpkOuyBpJJoT-LGhDuMRg4iaHaPciIU_rWQ1caS2/s300/11minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="291" data-original-width="300" height="388" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1IVKBFBVyytbA0jc2zmVk1bJCbMtE_gFg5ISd_8dacbRIUPtdy01zSxyHM1D1PlU1Nb9Xzj4gT7D_vH3kl8lS9msSlOFxiy3KuSnhsl9T8FNnjbKzwhoLjmp5ye1FeG_1F11ccyDXY6ZuWyP6TpkOuyBpJJoT-LGhDuMRg4iaHaPciIU_rWQ1caS2/w400-h388/11minds1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Byzantine erotic epigrams, notably those of Agathias Scholasticus in the sixth century, generally describe encounters with prostitutes in the street. The winding, dark alleyways of the Old City of Jerusalem were particularly appropriate for soliciting by scortae erraticae or ambulatrices. These lurked under the high arches which bridged the streets of the Holy City and walked up and down the cardo maximus.</b></span></span></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><p></p><h2 style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; clear: both; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><u>Contraception</u></span></h2><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In the sermons of the Church Fathers, contraception and prostitution formed a couple that could only engender death. St John Chrysostom cried out in Homily 24 on the Epistle to the Romans 4: ‘For you, a courtesan is not only a courtesan; you also make her into a murderess. Can you not see the link: after drunkenness, fornication; after fornication, adultery; after adultery, murder?’. According to Plautus, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">abortion was a likely action for a pregnant prostitute to take </u></b><span style="background-color: white;">(Truc. 179), either – Ovid suggested – by drinking poisons or by puncturing with a sharp instrument called the foeticide, the amniotic membrane which surrounds the foetus (Amor. 2.14). Procopius of Caesarea states emphatically that when she was a prostitute, Empress Theodora knew all the methods which would immediately provoke an abortion (Anecd. 9.20). </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In the same breath, the Didascalia Apostolorum (2.2) condemned both abortion and infanticide: ‘You will not kill the child by abortion and you will not murder it once it is born’. In 374, a decree of Emperors Valentinian I and Valens forbade infanticide on pain of death (Cod. Theod. 9.14.1). Nevertheless, the practice which had been common in the Roman period, continued. That is why the Tosephta (Oholoth 18.8) repeated in the fourth century the warning made by the Mishna in the second century: ‘The dwelling places of Gentiles are unclean… What do they [the rabbis] examine? The deep drains and the foul water’. This implied that the Gentiles </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">disposed of their aborted foetuses in the drains of their own houses.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The newborn babes who had been killed and tossed into the main sewer of the Ashqelon Baths, were predominantly boys.[12] This contradicts W. Petersen’s statement that ‘Infanticide is … associated with the higher valuation of males’.[13] According to him, whenever infanticide is practised, girls are first eliminated, followed by deformed and sickly children, offspring unwanted for reasons of magic (such as multiple births, twins or triplets) or of social ostracism (such as bastards). Beyond the biological fact that male births are more numerous than female births, the male dominance in the infanticide pattern at Ashqelon may derive in this precise case from the very trade of the mothers of these newborn children. </span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">According to Apollodoros’ Against Neaira, Greek hetairai predominantly bought young female slaves or adopted new-born girls who had been exposed. They educated them in the prostitutes’ trade and confined them to the brothels until these girls were old enough to ply their trade themselves and support their adopted mothers in their old age. Consequently, in a society of prostitutes, would Petersen’s ‘natural’ selection not have been reversed? </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Baby girls would have been kept alive and brought up in brothels</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> so that eventually they would be able to pick up the trade from their mothers when the latters’ attraction had faded. It would not have been possible to raise baby boys in the same way.[14] </span></span></p><p style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white;">Tainted by the sins of lust, of sexual enjoyment and murder, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Byzantine prostitutes, however, were never ‘branded’</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, unlike the Roman prostitutes who by law had to look different from respectable young women and matrons and were therefore made to wear the toga which was strictly for men (Hor. Sat. 1.2.63); unlike, too the mediaeval harlots of Western Europe who are consistently depicted wearing striped dresses, stripes being the iconographic attribute of ‘outlaws’ such as lepers and heretics.[15] Descriptions of the physical aspect of Byzantine prostitutes are at best vague, such as ‘dressed like a mistress’ in Midrash Genesis Rabbah (23.2). We can only imagine their appearance from fragmentary evidence, such as blue faience beaded fish-net dresses worn by prostitutes in Ancient Egypt, of which there are several strips in the Weingreen Museum of Biblical Archaeology of Trinity College, Dublin.</span></span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3vIjMrXxfxXl_FRl1xbxPSwh81rOSjhWli4uhE1k3pPHySltvwD2MwPXLsj81vgJZyXBNRhH46ZRbvlHS1APqUdtnRITDEoP9ZbKRQziqrU9BxLdfi936vTH42J-2_Hey4jdpsVwYP41XxbVW1VJ_UhQNVaNuB3Dhx-hYOGqoeEFO1MiVs87HJKu9/s900/11minds1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="900" data-original-width="491" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3vIjMrXxfxXl_FRl1xbxPSwh81rOSjhWli4uhE1k3pPHySltvwD2MwPXLsj81vgJZyXBNRhH46ZRbvlHS1APqUdtnRITDEoP9ZbKRQziqrU9BxLdfi936vTH42J-2_Hey4jdpsVwYP41XxbVW1VJ_UhQNVaNuB3Dhx-hYOGqoeEFO1MiVs87HJKu9/s16000/11minds1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">by Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant (1887)</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, "Bitstream Charter", serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">Empress Theodora</span></u></b></div><p></p><div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #222222; margin-bottom: 15px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">While still just a girl Theodora was made to work in a brothel to pay her way and she was obviously very good at what she did for she soon moved from <b><u><span style="background-color: yellow; color: red;">servicing the sexual requirements of low class clients for pennies</span></u></b> most of which was taken by the pimp that had been provided by the Faction to the more lucrative role of circus entertainer as a dancer and mime artist. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #222222; margin-bottom: 15px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Here <b><u style="background-color: yellow;">she provided sexually explicit shows for the social elite.</u></b> Particularly popular was her notoriously lascivious portrayal of Leda and the Swan where she would be stripped naked, lie on her back, and have barley sprinkled over her breasts and nether regions to be pecked at by geese.</span></div></div><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.classicsireland.com/1996/Dauphin96.html" target="_blank">(classicsireland.com)</a> <a href="https://mybyzantine.wordpress.com/2010/08/17/brothels-baths-and-babes-prostitution-in-the-byzantine-holy-land/" target="_blank">(prostitution-in-the-byzantine-holy-land)</a><br />
<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/293790/The-Roman-Empire-of-sex" target="_blank">(The-Roman-Empire-of-sex)</a> <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/2355219/pornographic-pompeii-wall-paints-reveal-the-raunchy-services-offered-in-ancient-roman-brothels-2000-years-ago/" target="_blank">(roman-brothels-2000-years-ago)</a><br />
<br /><br /><div><a href="https://meaww.com/ancient-roman-sex-trade-pompeii-lupanar-brothel-graffiti-sex-workers-miserable-lives-prostitutes" target="_blank">(sex-workers-prostitutes)</a><br /></div><div><br /></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-65664284275749241982022-03-08T17:53:00.002-08:002022-03-08T17:58:17.551-08:00Battle for Africa - Siege of Babylon, Egypt<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh5O6r6ykvcr0-9gH8CXnvL1pCaljtGIdc0fKq-R1mBeg5VQHuhVsWCLdd4BE073WbESChQrgXWoG1nRmWeyinO28idjPHPYi0C0UeGHPC8RWQ1E04H5DovXTmDp-TdTwifPsbXnEERt3KOkyNwoVek2kTUY-faLuQJ3It8ZvoFYAOEg-xz7KabWnsU=s504" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="336" data-original-width="504" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh5O6r6ykvcr0-9gH8CXnvL1pCaljtGIdc0fKq-R1mBeg5VQHuhVsWCLdd4BE073WbESChQrgXWoG1nRmWeyinO28idjPHPYi0C0UeGHPC8RWQ1E04H5DovXTmDp-TdTwifPsbXnEERt3KOkyNwoVek2kTUY-faLuQJ3It8ZvoFYAOEg-xz7KabWnsU=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">The Beginning of the End </span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">for Roman Africa, <span style="color: red;">Part I</span></span></u></b></div><br /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><u>The collapse of Roman authority</u></b></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The centuries of Roman rule in Egypt began in 30 BC. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">But that Roman rule was shaken to the core by the <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a 26 year long knock down war to the death</u></b> of Rome vs. the Persian Empire from 602 to 628AD.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Persian </span><b style="background-color: white;">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</b><span style="background-color: white;"> started in 618 when the</span> Persian<span style="background-color: white;"> army defeated the </span><span style="background-color: white;">Roman</span><span style="background-color: white;"> forces in </span>Egypt<span style="background-color: white;"> and occupied the province. The fall of </span>Alexandria<span style="background-color: white;">, the capital of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Egypt" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Roman Egypt"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Roman Egypt</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, marked the first and most important stage in the Sasanian campaign to conquer this rich province.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Persian shah, </span>Khosrow II<span style="background-color: white;">, had taken advantage of the internal turmoil of the Roman Empire after the overthrow of Emperor </span>Maurice<span style="background-color: white;"> by </span>Phocas<span style="background-color: white;"> to attack the Roman provinces in the East. By 615, the Persians had driven the Romans out of northern Mesopotamia, </span>Syria<span style="background-color: white;">, and </span>Palestine<span style="background-color: white;">. </span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Determined to eradicate Roman rule in Asia, Khosrow turned his sights on Egypt, the Eastern Roman Empire's granary.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In 617 or 618 the Persian army headed for Alexandria, where </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicetas_(cousin_of_Heraclius)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Nicetas (cousin of Heraclius)"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Nicetas</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, Emperor Heraclius' cousin and local governor, was unable to offer effective resistance.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">After the fall of Alexandria, the Persians gradually extended their rule southwards along the </span>Nile<span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Persians did not try to force the population of Egypt to renounce their religion and practice </span>Zoroastrianism<span style="background-color: white;">. They did, however, persecute the </span>Byzantine Church<span style="background-color: white;"> whilst supporting the </span>Monophysite Church<span style="background-color: white;">. The Egyptian </span>Copts<span style="background-color: white;"> took advantage of the circumstances and obtained control over many of the Orthodox churches.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">There were numerous Persian stations in the country, which included </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephantine" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Elephantine"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Elephantine</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, Herakleia, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyrhynchus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Oxyrhynchus"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Oxyrhynchus</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, Kynon, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosiopolis_in_Arcadia" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Theodosiopolis in Arcadia">Theodosiopolis</a><span style="background-color: white;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermopolis" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Hermopolis">Hermopolis</a><span style="background-color: white;">, </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinopolis" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Antinopolis">Antinopolis</a><span style="background-color: white;">, Kosson, Lykos, Diospolis, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qena" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Qena"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Maximianopolis</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. The assignment of those stations was to collect taxes and get supplies for the military. </span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Several </span>papyrus<span style="background-color: white;"> papers mention the collection of taxes by the Sasanians, which shows that they used the same method of the Byzantines for collecting taxes.</span><span><span style="background-color: white;"> Another papyrus mentions an Iranian and his sister, which indicates that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">some Persian families had settled in Egypt</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> along with the soldiers.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Egypt and parts of Libya would remain in Persian hands for 10 years<span style="background-color: white;">, run by general </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahrbaraz" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a><span style="background-color: white;"> from Alexandria.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> As the Roman Emperor, </span>Heraclius<span style="background-color: white;">, reversed the tide and defeated Khosrow, Shahrbaraz was ordered to evacuate the province, but refused. In the end, Heraclius, trying both to recover Egypt and to sow disunion amongst the Persians, offered to help Shahrbaraz seize the Persian throne for himself. </span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">An agreement was reached, and in the summer of 629, the Persian troops began leaving Egypt and a fleet from Constantinople arrived at Alexandria to garrison the country with Roman troops.</span></span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgXsCwbMvcs626-ia_gcXbYV9QPl-FmzgMLfoftY5hYlwh4CoEt6svysAFin98JtWGM5hI7PltaMCt17o6tNKEP96sAZQn69Q_eftyPHfLAIU_gQRyeHCzYpptSiSN2IXBal03K9fL0D4p9YpxZIxrMUDE8TQHcSPoERE1h3LDqWVY-1xwG0A3LDFy2=s500" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="482" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgXsCwbMvcs626-ia_gcXbYV9QPl-FmzgMLfoftY5hYlwh4CoEt6svysAFin98JtWGM5hI7PltaMCt17o6tNKEP96sAZQn69Q_eftyPHfLAIU_gQRyeHCzYpptSiSN2IXBal03K9fL0D4p9YpxZIxrMUDE8TQHcSPoERE1h3LDqWVY-1xwG0A3LDFy2=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Egypt Was Conquered by Persia</span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Centuries of Roman rule in Egypt, Palestine and Syria came to a violent end with Persian armies invading and the lands being absorbed into the Persian Empire. For over 10 years the locals looked to Persia for their economy, laws, religious freedom and security. Constantinople and ties to Rome faded in the minds of an entire generation. </span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEigDwVMhD_7nmzQYhMgght1A7FcnM6sn78ep7PHbRVcgoZzX5G1reIIqkXIh-jAEtHCR79INlmM38dIDhGgVU9yXEkRQdkxWaeioJuzZaUvBhbs7PXp9AAE6tR05-3JsWEOSy2kGRo5zT-Y-0Sn1oMPQXtcslcYtjtR5QHLfVbjfCHJGMZJ3HoUxzTg=s1050" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="1050" height="229" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEigDwVMhD_7nmzQYhMgght1A7FcnM6sn78ep7PHbRVcgoZzX5G1reIIqkXIh-jAEtHCR79INlmM38dIDhGgVU9yXEkRQdkxWaeioJuzZaUvBhbs7PXp9AAE6tR05-3JsWEOSy2kGRo5zT-Y-0Sn1oMPQXtcslcYtjtR5QHLfVbjfCHJGMZJ3HoUxzTg=w400-h229" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Click to enlarge</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;">The </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;">Diocese of Egypt</span></u><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> </span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;">Egypt was a province of the later </span>Roman Empire<span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> from 381AD.</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> It incorporated the provinces of </span>Egypt<span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> and </span>Cyrenaica<span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;">. Its capital was at </span>Alexandria<span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;">, and its governor had the unique title of </span><i style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praefectus_augustalis" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Praefectus augustalis">praefectus augustalis</a></i><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> ("Augustal Prefect", of the rank </span><i style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vir_spectabilis" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Vir spectabilis"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">vir spectabilis</span></a></i><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;">; previously the governor of the imperial 'crown domain' province Egypt)</span></span></div><br /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b><span style="font-size: large;"><u>The Muslim Invasion</u></span></b></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Roman authority in Egypt had been undermined by the 10 year rule of Persia and the <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">religious freedom</u></b> that came with it.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Emperor Heraclius appointed the Orthodox Bishop Cyrus from the Caucasus Mountain region to be both Patriarch of Alexandria and Governor of Egypt. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Cyrus began an active persecution of Monophysite "heretics". Menas, the brother of the Coptic Patriarch, was seized. <b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">His body was burned with torches and his teeth were pulled out.</span></u></b> He was placed in a sack weighed with sand and rowed out to sea. Menas was offered his life if he accepted the Orthodox version of worship. When he refused he was thrown into the ocean.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Imperial soldiers were sent to Monophysite monasteries to torture or imprison the abbots who would not obey. Many Copts pretended to submit or fled the cities. It is likely that these events severed the last shreds of loyalty to Constantinople.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">When the Muslims crossed into Egypt the local Coptic population was not very interested in defending an Empire that was crushing their freedom.</span></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi1aA38-7ks8KAkbqCRxhgsBhVq--C7wK4nSHyM9FAktyghgquVtBxcwnEzV4bAcwXsLYXx6XngyTVJZ8TFtYCW4DaIbnBmYUU3hJLdSDuZC4-czzBUlVxY-a18wzfmQQo9a1fSWoN8VgUdrn3_gLLSQcP44dxwjAeuy0bWm2SYeH9pnkyxN90JVHtf=s868" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="554" data-original-width="868" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi1aA38-7ks8KAkbqCRxhgsBhVq--C7wK4nSHyM9FAktyghgquVtBxcwnEzV4bAcwXsLYXx6XngyTVJZ8TFtYCW4DaIbnBmYUU3hJLdSDuZC4-czzBUlVxY-a18wzfmQQo9a1fSWoN8VgUdrn3_gLLSQcP44dxwjAeuy0bWm2SYeH9pnkyxN90JVHtf=w400-h255" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Click to enlarge</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Map from <i>The Great Arab Conquests</i> (1964)</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">by <span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px;">Lieutenant-General </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px; text-align: left;">Sir John Bagot Glubb</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">KCB</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">CMG</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">DSO</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">OBE</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">MC</span></span></div></div><br /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Roman Egypt was a direct threat to the Muslim conquests in Syria and Palestine. The <a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/War%20-%20Battle%20for%20the%20Middle%20East%20Part%20X" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Roman Amphibious Attack to recapture Antioch</span></a> in 638 had been executed by naval and ground forces based out of Egypt. Caesarea, the last remaining Roman city in Palestine, was being reinforced and supplied by the navy out of Alexandria, Egypt.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">So in December 639, 'Amr ibn al-'As left for Egypt with a force of 4,000 troops. Taking the same ancient caravan road used by the Persian Army only a few years earlier, the Muslim forces</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> reached the fortified town of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelusium" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. The Persians has captured the town without much trouble. But the Muslims lacked heavy siege weapons and were unable to take it.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Muslims blockaded the town for a month. Then one day there was an unsuccessful sally by the garrison and the Arabs were able to enter one of the gates with the retreating soldiers. </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Shipping in the port was burned, the churches pulled down and the fortifications dismantled.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> Amr destroyed much of the town because he did not have enough men to garrison the fortress, and he did not want the Romans to land troops from the sea and reoccupy the fortress which would be in his rear on his supply lines.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif">After the fall of Pelusium, the Muslims marched to </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belbeis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Belbeis">Belbeis</a><span face="sans-serif">, some 40 miles from </span>Memphis<span face="sans-serif"> via desert roads. The Arabs had reached Nile Delta. </span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The famous Roman General Aretion came out of the city to negotiate with Amr. Aretion had been the Governor of </span>Jerusalem<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and had fled to Egypt when the city fell to the Muslims. Amr gave them three options: convert to Islam, pay the </span>jizya<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, or fight. They requested three days to reflect and then</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> requested two extra days.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">At the end of the five days the general decided to reject Islam and the jizya and fight the Muslims</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. The battle resulted in a Muslim victory during which Aretion was killed. Amr subsequently attempted to convince the native Egyptians to aid the Arabs and surrender the city, based on the kinship between Egyptians and Arabs.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> When the Egyptians refused, the siege resumed until the city fell around the end of March 640.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;">The siege of </span>Belbeis had delayed the Muslims another month.</u></b> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Meanwhile Cyrus, the Governor of Egypt, and Theodore, commander-in-chief of the Roman Army in Egypt, established themselves in the Fortress of Babylon.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg3c9rEbOzLWoRwlC49RCBCGAHpeqmE-L5TOU4MF2YpE8ILej1_C8RAdXejYMrwfUXuSQtLL_psVfjeZa4EEY15Mhzxt488z_3HWI7Iil8NCoGd2QFtQwZzof9h-9sn_VRxGkjaAQQ45pQ2bSILTDtpsY3k5sxzaVM9HdHKEoIOLqIQioW5t_tDWInU=s500" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="326" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg3c9rEbOzLWoRwlC49RCBCGAHpeqmE-L5TOU4MF2YpE8ILej1_C8RAdXejYMrwfUXuSQtLL_psVfjeZa4EEY15Mhzxt488z_3HWI7Iil8NCoGd2QFtQwZzof9h-9sn_VRxGkjaAQQ45pQ2bSILTDtpsY3k5sxzaVM9HdHKEoIOLqIQioW5t_tDWInU=s16000" /></a></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><h1 class="nova-e-text nova-e-text--size-m nova-e-text--family-sans-serif nova-e-text--spacing-none nova-e-text--color-inherit" itemprop="caption" style="background-color: white; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.3; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">General layout of the fortress of Babylon, Egypt</span></h1>
<h1 class="nova-e-text nova-e-text--size-m nova-e-text--family-sans-serif nova-e-text--spacing-none nova-e-text--color-inherit" itemprop="caption" style="background-color: white; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.3; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">in the first century AD. (Sheehan, 2015)</span></h1>
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</tbody></table><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi0R8J6-Pr3mRLCF9g2bzzEYs1TTURH773Skjj8PjHjDTj3LEV4VPsU6ECZ09PJl1-zaRojG8YpX4oeR6tp826cNIwic1oaSACaUaCaTwOORXXWl9FmrtooDxh4wsvU1tLQ-Xh55RZmYBMb8v7o0kQr7C6cAKzNeB8CnqeAbqHaQLdTXioo1m5MGBo9=s501" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="376" data-original-width="501" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi0R8J6-Pr3mRLCF9g2bzzEYs1TTURH773Skjj8PjHjDTj3LEV4VPsU6ECZ09PJl1-zaRojG8YpX4oeR6tp826cNIwic1oaSACaUaCaTwOORXXWl9FmrtooDxh4wsvU1tLQ-Xh55RZmYBMb8v7o0kQr7C6cAKzNeB8CnqeAbqHaQLdTXioo1m5MGBo9=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><u>Remains of the Babylon Fortress</u></b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px rgb(225, 225, 225); box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.85em 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">It is believed that the original Babylon Fortress was built during the 6th century BC by the Persians. It was located on the cliffs near to the Nile River, next to the Pharaonic Canal which effectively connected the Nile River to the Red Sea.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px rgb(225, 225, 225); box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.85em 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Boats and other river craft making their way up and down the Nile would have paid tolls at the fortress, and when the Romans seized control of the area, they continued to use the original Babylon Fortress, but only for a relatively short period of time.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px rgb(225, 225, 225); box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.85em 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">While the Romans appreciated the strategic importance of the fort due to its original location, efficient water distribution was difficult, and the Roman emperor Trajan gave the orders to move Babylon Fortress closer to the river in order to make water distribution within the fortress grounds easier and more efficient. At the time when Babylon Fortress was moved to its new location, it was right next to the Nile River.</span></p></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="background-color: white;">The Siege of </span><span style="background-color: white;">Babylon (September 640 to April 641)</span></u></b></span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Babylon was a fortified city, and the Romans had indeed prepared it for a siege. Outside the city, a </span>ditch<span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span> had been dug, and a large force was positioned in the area between the ditch and the city walls. The fort was a massive structure 59 ft high with walls more than 6.6 feet thick and studded with numerous </span></span></span>towers<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and </span>bastions<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and manned by a force of some 4,000 Roman soldiers.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">For the timeline of these events I am using those of </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px; text-align: center;">General </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; line-height: 22.4px;">Sir John Bagot Glubb and his book <i>The Great Arab Conquests</i>.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Amr may have arrived in the Babylon area in the Spring of 640, but he was in a tough situation. His troops were basically </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">lightly armed tribal desert raiders.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> They had no heavy siege equipment to take on Babylon. With no easy targets at hand or reinforcements coming from Medina, the morale of Amr's men would go down. He needed action and a victory of some type.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span>Amr skirmished for some weeks in the neighborhood with no results. Finally he captured a small outpost north of Babylon with a harbor and boats. Using the boats he ferried himself and his troops over the Nile to the West bank and marched about 50 miles south to the fertile district</span></span></span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayoum" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Fayoum">Fayoum</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. </span></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">This was a risky move. Amr was on the West bank of the Nile. Any reinforcements from Arabia would be on the East bank of the Nile. The Roman garrison in Babylon would be between them. If Theodore, the commander of Babylon, took action he might be able to defeat the two separated Muslim armies in detail.</span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">So around May, 640 Amr marched south to Fayoum. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Romans had anticipated this and had therefore strongly guarded the roads leading to the city. They had also fortified their garrison in the nearby town of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahun" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Lahun">Lahun</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. When the Muslim Arabs realized that Fayoum was too strong for them to invade, they headed towards the </span>Western Desert<span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">, where they looted all the cattle and animals they could. A smaller town in the province was attacked and </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a</u></b><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">ll of the men, women and children were massacred.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgPkKBAYHfpQE4BhIrOblDcMmT11pPmAVziLcSkBeEfjkF8_Mf8DQDkkCM3D2Upw8oRML427dfXyahdPW249I4_1GDE0tpSaF52F-Led4W-ZWqLaFYiG54EKiKWn8V7pg8rRb-Bw1ahL30DSGRMqSig-phtpT-VgUQqSzIA_eSiCPtYz4Y2-SHYAeSF=s675" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="675" data-original-width="504" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgPkKBAYHfpQE4BhIrOblDcMmT11pPmAVziLcSkBeEfjkF8_Mf8DQDkkCM3D2Upw8oRML427dfXyahdPW249I4_1GDE0tpSaF52F-Led4W-ZWqLaFYiG54EKiKWn8V7pg8rRb-Bw1ahL30DSGRMqSig-phtpT-VgUQqSzIA_eSiCPtYz4Y2-SHYAeSF=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">A 19th century Bedouin warrior</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222;" /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">The Arab forces facing the Romans would look much like this soldier.</span></span></div><br /><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">John, the Roman commander of the Fayoum district, set out with 50 men to make a personal reconnaissance of the area. Amr received a report of his presence. He immediately sent a force, surrounded John and </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">killed the entire patrol. </u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> Then receiving word that the reinforcements he asked for were arriving, Amr's army returned to </span></span>Lower Egypt<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> down the </span>River Nile<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Caliph had dispatched 4,000 men to reinforce Amr in Egypt. These were mostly veterans of the </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Syrian campaigns</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. Even with the reinforcements, Amr was unsuccessful and so, by August, 'Umar had assembled another 4,000-strong force, consisting of four columns, each of 1,000 elite men. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The reinforcements arrived at Babylon sometime in September 640, bringing the total strength of the Muslim force to 12,000 up to perhaps 15,000 men, still quite modest.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Muslim reinforcements of 10,000+ troops under</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zubair_ibn_al-Awam" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); outline-color: rgb(51, 102, 204);" target="_blank" title=""><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Zubair ibn al-Awam</span></a> gathered to the north of Babylon. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Roman commander Theodore had gathered a "large force" around Babylon. . . . . whatever that might mean. We have no numbers. It might have been equal to or greater than the Muslims. Theodore had a chance to attack Zubair to the north before Amr and his troops could return from Fayoum, but Theodore remained inactive. Meanwhile in July Amr re-crossed the Nile with his army and joined Zubair 10 miles north of Babylon near the city of<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span>Heliopolis.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Faced with a united and larger Muslim army Theodore somehow felt now was a good time to march out of Babylon and take on the Arabs. So in July 640 he marched north out of the fortress and out on to the plain to attack at <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopolis_(Ancient_Egypt)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; outline-color: rgb(51, 102, 204);" target="_blank" title="">Heliopolis</a>. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">I will deal with the battle at<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span>Heliopolis in a future article. Suffice it to say, <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Romans were ambushed and fled back to the safety of Babylon</u></b> and closed the gates.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">With no Roman army in the field the Muslims scoured the countryside for supplies and plunder. The Roman forces who had successfully defended Fayoum abandoned the province. They took to ships and sailed down the Nile going past Babylon (offering no help) and sailed 45 miles north to the town of Nikiou. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Amr immediately dispatched a force which took Fayoum by assault and massacred the inhabitants. The whole province then surrendered without resistance.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Arabs occupied towns up to 35 miles north of Babylon. Amr continued to act towards the Egyptians with considerable ruthlessness, either because he had a cruel nature or because he made terrorism into policy to discourage resistance. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Having subdued the provinces of Misr and Fayoum the Muslims were in a good position to gather supplies for their army.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Meanwhile August had come and <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Nile was rising</u></b> soon to flood a great part of the Delta rendering further operations difficult. Amr decided to reduce Babylon before proceeding further.</span></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgniq4mW2xUP2oN5eCzlDrFD9Dpe34L3-Auy4D5hq_Ezs0b__1TiwqPjv7_MsUmYrDT8v1LAafEh3WWTY-98oiY7Rn3bUzNgi6_KEfLDi86BdGaTysoOv9mXL72j9HmitLpII80EBsPlzwjPOfZas8E5YBGOn85pTteoDcI_lYRQ3RXi2AeudjFZZxY=s667" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="667" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgniq4mW2xUP2oN5eCzlDrFD9Dpe34L3-Auy4D5hq_Ezs0b__1TiwqPjv7_MsUmYrDT8v1LAafEh3WWTY-98oiY7Rn3bUzNgi6_KEfLDi86BdGaTysoOv9mXL72j9HmitLpII80EBsPlzwjPOfZas8E5YBGOn85pTteoDcI_lYRQ3RXi2AeudjFZZxY=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><u><b>Remains of Babylon Fortress</b></u></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The fortress was surrounded in flood season with a moat made up of the Nile River.</span></span></div></div><br /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u>The Siege of Babylon Begins</u></b></span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The great fortress consisted of an irregular quadrilateral of walls upwards of 6.5 to 8 feet thick and upwards of 60 feet high, built in alternate layers of brick and stone. Two towers rose considerably higher. In plan it was about 1,000 feet long by 500 feet wide at one end, tapering to 300 feet wide at the other end.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The River Nile washed one of the long sides. A small harbor for river boats lay at the foot of the wall by the south gate. The whole of the fortress was <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">surrounded by a moat filled with water from the Nile.</u></b> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Opposite the main fortress was the island of Raudha which lay in mid-stream. It also was fortified and garrisoned. The two fortresses were able to maintain communications by boat. To capture such a fortress presented a formidable task to Muslims who had found it difficult to even seize a town like Pelusium.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Patriarch Cyrus, the Governor of Egypt, was himself besieged inside Babylon. The Roman garrison may have consisted of 5,000 to 6,000 men. They were well supplied with food and warlike stores.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The siege probably began in earnest in September 640.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The strong fortress of Babylon would have no trouble resisting the Muslims for months. But Cyrus must have been aware of the hatred felt for his regime in the country. He would also know that because the Empire had its hands full trying to keep the Arabs out of Anatolia, he could expect little to no help from Constantinople. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">An interesting observation. <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Where was Roman Carthage during the invasion of Egypt?</u></b> </span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">In 608, Heraclius the Elder in Carthage renounced his loyalty to the Emperor </span>Phocas<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consul" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Consul">consuls</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> Heraclius's younger cousin </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicetas_(cousin_of_Heraclius)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Nicetas (cousin of Heraclius)">Nicetas</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> launched an overland invasion of </span>Egypt<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general </span>Bonosus<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and secured the province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius gathered a fleet and sailed eastward to Constantinople via </span>Sicily<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and </span>Cyprus finally being crowned Emperor in 610<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Troops in Carthage were available to invade Egypt in 609. So </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">why were there no reinforcements from Carthage</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> going to bolster Roman forces in Egypt? History is silent on the subject.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhDmkuDmkcaUgnl83Y_BM71z-nAMeWygscL_0tgsxObfzl9oF7UGG11yMkvex8etZWrYcbgCv_SS_UlDmja23Dje4Lquhhbhg1cntsvNKS-HYy6YqxowG9yBMJSEEPT4Fx_v3Lc8MaRvGS33k17srzksfCEDDpZLngR1KjW3t9h7RswVme9RO0tiQo_=s500" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="396" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhDmkuDmkcaUgnl83Y_BM71z-nAMeWygscL_0tgsxObfzl9oF7UGG11yMkvex8etZWrYcbgCv_SS_UlDmja23Dje4Lquhhbhg1cntsvNKS-HYy6YqxowG9yBMJSEEPT4Fx_v3Lc8MaRvGS33k17srzksfCEDDpZLngR1KjW3t9h7RswVme9RO0tiQo_=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: large;">The Siege of Babylon</span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">There were more Roman troops than would fit inside the fortress. So the extra troops entrenched themselves outside the walls behind a ditch they dug which was flooded by the waters of the Nile. But in General Glubb's book he says the moat surrounded the fortress. No doubt the troops continued the trench around the fortress and let the Nile fill it to the top.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Graphic from <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TbY5xjrt0ZE" target="_blank">Kings and Generals</a></span></div><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">With apparently no help coming from Constantinople or Carthage, in October 640 Cyrus was ferried over to the island of Raudha. From there a mission was sent to Amr to negotiate. Negotiations were conducted from the island so as not to depress the morale of the garrison inside Babylon.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The emissaries from Amr were told they could not resist Roman power over the long run, and they were </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">offered a cash payment to leave Egypt.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> The Muslim reply was the standard one: submit to Islam, pay tribute and be 2nd class citizens under Muslim rule or fight.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Cyrus appeared to be inclined to accept payment of tribute, but a number of officers strongly protested. Perhaps these officers were residents of Egypt, whereas Cyrus was an outsider who had been sent to Egypt from the Caucasus Mountains region.</span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Amr offered Cyrus three days to consider his offer. When the three days ended the Romans lowered on of the drawbridges and sallied forth to attack the Arabs. After </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">heavy fighting</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> the Romans were repulsed and driven back inside the fortress. This reverse depressed those who had advocated resistance and strengthen the hand of Cyrus who wanted submission.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Negotiations were reopened. A treaty was drawn up in the usual form of tribute and submission. Christians were to be granted freedom of religion under the "protection" of the Muslims. A clause was added that the treaty was subject to approval of the Emperor. Pending agreement the military situation would remain unchanged.</span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Cyrus immediately sailed down the Nile to Alexandria. Once there is wrote a dispatch to Heraclius explaining why he had been compelled to submit and begging the Emperor to ratify the treaty. Heraclius was now an old and sick man, but he could not stomach the defeatism of Cyrus. He ordered Cyrus to report at once to Constantinople.</span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Emperor received his Governor of Egypt with angry and bitter reproaches which were not unjustified. For Cyrus had alienated the loyalty of the great majority of Egyptians. </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">He was accused of betraying the Empire to an enemy</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, was dismissed from his post and sent into exile.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif"><span style="background-color: white;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #202122; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #202122; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgH33-iZPxnja0JXcSsinrn9dpyNxGC1smPY3w1ufe8bc5hqUlp9gQCcr4NscQPZ3HYIMpcZf7hiVrJA5IA3j0HvU6_y4rIpT1PenKwm3cGlZsnWa5lvWVFyDGQyF7-uFPHaQt6Esf61GvlsJ9cA7gdj51ieO-SAc3Cb86BeSdOoOhEkLX7tl3sYB8m=s512" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="384" data-original-width="512" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgH33-iZPxnja0JXcSsinrn9dpyNxGC1smPY3w1ufe8bc5hqUlp9gQCcr4NscQPZ3HYIMpcZf7hiVrJA5IA3j0HvU6_y4rIpT1PenKwm3cGlZsnWa5lvWVFyDGQyF7-uFPHaQt6Esf61GvlsJ9cA7gdj51ieO-SAc3Cb86BeSdOoOhEkLX7tl3sYB8m=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Late Roman cohort reenactment group</span></b><br style="color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px;" /><a href="http://www.twcenter.net/forums/showthread.php?371068-Usage-of-Armor-in-the-late-roman-army/page9" style="color: #888888; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">(www.twcenter.net)</span></a></div><span style="color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">When the Emperor's refusal to ratify the treaty became known hostilities reopened. At this point, certain Egyptians (Copts perhaps) began to assist the Muslims. However </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the garrison continued to carry out sallies and inflict casualties</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> on the besiegers.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Gradually the winter dragged on. As the Nile flood subsided the protective moat almost dried up. The Muslims had not been able to make any impression on the walls of the fortress. The best they could do was blindly shoot arrows over the walls and hope they might land on someone.</span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In late winter Amr receiver news that a Roman force was gathering in the Delta. Leaving a small detachment at Babylon he set out to attack the Romans. The Muslims became entangled in the canals and irrigation ditches of the Delta and were </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">roughly handled by Roman attacks</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> forcing them to withdraw back to Baylon.</span></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Then in March 641 news reached Babylon of the death of Emperor Heraclius. The garrison was depressed and the Arabs shouted for joy. </span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Encouraged by the news the Muslims prepared for an assault. In some places they had almost succeeded in filling in the moat. Scaling ladders were prepared and Zubair headed up the assaulting column. Under the cover of darkness Zubair and a handful of followers made it to the top of the wall. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">There was still time for a determined counter attack to cut them down and throw them into the moat. But after a seven month siege from September 640 to April 641 the garrison had had enough. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">As dawn broke the garrison commander offered to parley. Amr immediately accepted and a form of capitulation was drafted. After three days the garrison was to retire, embark in ships on the Nile and leave the fortress intact with all its stores. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">On April 9, 641 the garrison withdrew and the great fortress of Babylon was occupied by the victorious Muslims.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgkwc1jbOoFpis_kvfI5aRsEAZbhpGnUd3VtrYmrC8j8K45nbnK92dVaVpnRHmG6-3reN80miICzA4My_ABzURXZcZa-0zGSTNAnHEjntBUvBgH9gpjQa7hLsDv57Gq7nsDfY6XU1zzgSwQg6ZcfX338HGIw-BruM9KwBKXSmViPOLRNzFR6BjWo437=s558" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="558" data-original-width="503" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgkwc1jbOoFpis_kvfI5aRsEAZbhpGnUd3VtrYmrC8j8K45nbnK92dVaVpnRHmG6-3reN80miICzA4My_ABzURXZcZa-0zGSTNAnHEjntBUvBgH9gpjQa7hLsDv57Gq7nsDfY6XU1zzgSwQg6ZcfX338HGIw-BruM9KwBKXSmViPOLRNzFR6BjWo437=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><u><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;">Roman Emperor Heraclius</span></u></b><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Crowned Caesar <span lang="la" style="text-align: start;">Flavius Heraclius Augustus</span> in 610. Latin was still the official language of the military and government. The Emperor faced invasions by Persians, Avars, Spanish Visigoths and Muslim Arabs. The Emperor personally commanded Roman troops in an invasion into the heart of Persia. He crushed their Empire and forced Persian troops to evacuate the conquered Roman provinces of Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia.</span></span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b><u><span style="font-size: large;">Aftermath</span></u></b></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;">In Syria and Palestine, many of the local Christian Arab tribes had fought at the side of the Romans to the very end. That was not the case in Egypt.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;">Cyrus was largely responsible for the weakness of Egypt in the face of Arab invasion. The Copts were the large majority in Egypt and had experienced religious freedom under Persian rule. Then they saw ruthless religious persecution when the Romans returned. When the crisis came the only truly loyal groups supporting the Empire would have been the Greek speaking Orthodox people and a smaller number of Egyptians who adhered to the Orthodox Church. </span></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;">The Copts might not have welcomed the Muslims, but they knew that in Syria the Muslims gave religious freedom to the local Christians as long as the tribute was paid. Their choice was to be slaves of the Romans or slaves of the Muslims. So why fight?</span></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: medium;">Babylon was a huge loss to the Empire. Rome had now lost control of central and upper Egypt. The Muslims were free to gather supplies and concentrate their forces on Alexandria.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiep9IqJUaqTOmtDe2dqAe6PDpZKnOgzZIeC8_eRNdScGWa-vO1A-32YQJBcePnpTbUV08iYMg2ZUuU39_u3SwTYs19KsbB0c84f8Wo_5keOqntzAJnZkSHgAQnppgAEAnWBQvq7llhS29rFtOnlXBRPntmUvun7DTKzMEqPHdlCp2mcpBdkQ6CrFy1=s640" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="640" data-original-width="502" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiep9IqJUaqTOmtDe2dqAe6PDpZKnOgzZIeC8_eRNdScGWa-vO1A-32YQJBcePnpTbUV08iYMg2ZUuU39_u3SwTYs19KsbB0c84f8Wo_5keOqntzAJnZkSHgAQnppgAEAnWBQvq7llhS29rFtOnlXBRPntmUvun7DTKzMEqPHdlCp2mcpBdkQ6CrFy1=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/355432595569507257/" style="background-color: white;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">Roman Archers</span></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Battle for the Middle East</span></u></b></div><span style="color: white;">.</span><div><p style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">For more go to <span style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration-line: underline;"><span style="color: red;">Part X</span></span><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif"> of my series on the titanic Battle for the Middle East.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif">Where Eastern Roman military history is addressed at all there are casual references to a single Battle of Yarmouk in 636 AD. "Historians" effectively say the Arabs just magically showed up one day at Yarmouk and defeated a weak Roman Empire.</span><br /><br /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif">Nothing could be further from the truth. My series details a Roman-Muslim slug fest taking place over many years and many battles over a huge geographical area.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif">Go To:</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif"><a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/War%20-%20Battle%20for%20the%20Middle%20East%20Part%20X" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: x-large;">The Fall of Jerusalem and Antioch Ends Rome in the Middle East</span></a></span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/great-Arab-conquests-Bagot-Glubb/dp/1566196809" target="_blank">(Glubb, Great Arab Conquests)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Babylon_Fortress" target="_blank">(Babylon Fortress)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" target="_blank">(Egypt)</a></div><br /><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" target="_blank">(Sasanian Egypt)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" target="_blank">(Sasanian conquest of Egypt)</a> <a href="https://www.egypttoursplus.com/babylon-fortress-cairo/" target="_blank">(Babylon fortress)</a><br /><br /><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" target="_blank">(Amr_ibn_al-As)</a><br /><br /><div><br /></div></div>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-54184168635398687912022-01-19T11:22:00.001-08:002022-01-19T11:22:35.639-08:00Badger unearths Roman coins in Spain<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiFc4hJg_bzcu3bsWev-uPOm7kwJabcDLLD5XerJSvPjHXJ2NfkYQO1-EBE-arZIeDJoPw0FhBjw62uNtrz-EKiYHG2Yx_u4JA8vbi_USmOVvXZLDlMnDU-4XmxXokhn8KWJu8Ic_EdvJrNF90zfaiRfLBjjiZeGmE-WsWXem4g_kTn--tZEntgpY7a=s500" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="332" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiFc4hJg_bzcu3bsWev-uPOm7kwJabcDLLD5XerJSvPjHXJ2NfkYQO1-EBE-arZIeDJoPw0FhBjw62uNtrz-EKiYHG2Yx_u4JA8vbi_USmOVvXZLDlMnDU-4XmxXokhn8KWJu8Ic_EdvJrNF90zfaiRfLBjjiZeGmE-WsWXem4g_kTn--tZEntgpY7a=s16000" /></a></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>EDITOR - While this is not exactly a "military" topic, money does make the world go around and certainly funds the armed forces. In this case the coins came from the Eastern Empire.</b></span></p><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">A treasure trove of some 200 Roman-era coins, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #121212; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;">dating from between the third and fifth century AD,</span><span style="background-color: white;"> was discovered in northwestern Spain thanks to the apparent efforts of </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a hungry badger</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> hunting for food, archaeologists have said.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Described as "an exceptional find", the coins were discovered in April 2021 in La Cuesta cave in Bercio in the Asturias region, with </span>details outlined<span style="background-color: white;"> in the Journal of Prehistory and Archaeology </span><a class="link rapid-noclick-resp" data-ylk="slk:published" href="https://revistas.uam.es/cupauam/article/view/14978?ftag=YHF4eb9d17" rel="nofollow noopener" style="background-color: white; cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">published </a><span style="background-color: white;">last month by Madrid's Autonomous University.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The coins were likely dug up by a badger searching for food during the </span><span class="link" style="background-color: white;">rare snowstorm</span><span style="background-color: white;"> which paralyzed Spain in January 2021 — a blizzard </span>officials called<span style="background-color: white;"> "the most intense storm in the last 50 years."</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhWGWgkV-Z3LPJsW-u80Zxw-BQtmss0QkZ3ghPTy0igkADMRzJMdDRu07REYhLM31L_1DwFyaUAFP2jI3lT22lWl0KIry47CUR_ttgM_ucRBhJcAuQhONRKliOsgtnMIpzXisUUa9P2lNgfAjkqzAM5sKrMGG8pzx7N4XTZsKwG0akum37brO5uxeyP=s500" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhWGWgkV-Z3LPJsW-u80Zxw-BQtmss0QkZ3ghPTy0igkADMRzJMdDRu07REYhLM31L_1DwFyaUAFP2jI3lT22lWl0KIry47CUR_ttgM_ucRBhJcAuQhONRKliOsgtnMIpzXisUUa9P2lNgfAjkqzAM5sKrMGG8pzx7N4XTZsKwG0akum37brO5uxeyP=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: 0.2px; text-align: start;">The coins were probably hidden by people fleeing barbarians, archaeologists say.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: 0.2px; text-align: start;"> </span><span class="BasicArticle__credit" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; letter-spacing: 0.2px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: start; vertical-align: baseline;">Credit: </span><span class="BasicArticle__credit" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; letter-spacing: 0.2px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: start; vertical-align: baseline;">Alfonso Fanjul Peraza</span></span></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Most of these late Roman era coins "originate from the north and eastern Mediterranean" </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">from Antioch, Constantinople, Thessaloniki</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> which later passed through Rome and Arles and Lyon in southern France, although at least one coin came from London, they wrote. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The researchers </span><a class="link rapid-noclick-resp" data-ylk="slk:told El Pais" href="https://elpais.com/cultura/2022-01-08/filomena-y-un-tejon-se-aliaron-para-encontrar-un-tesoro-arqueologico.html?ftag=YHF4eb9d17" rel="nofollow noopener" style="background-color: white; cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">told El Pais</a><span style="background-color: white;"> the one minted in London was one of the most well preserved coins and is "bronze, weighing between eight and 10 grams, with an approximate </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">4% silver."</u></b></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhWYlP6Kfj73UbkjRsvIlcFz97-Z3sMASL4JSsvGDwNVb0TVH8m8vj20JH3KmHt1yycEketFs0yp3RZZsAR1GEDQf-lwo_uebncHyZkVEFW16K2WXKsXkm_iKL1Aa_kFaGDKLz7TrAGSUJfPZDzdwXUb6tdsbUuAFs28lNCbCcbMEwFS8f4-UadoiqY=s500" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="395" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhWYlP6Kfj73UbkjRsvIlcFz97-Z3sMASL4JSsvGDwNVb0TVH8m8vj20JH3KmHt1yycEketFs0yp3RZZsAR1GEDQf-lwo_uebncHyZkVEFW16K2WXKsXkm_iKL1Aa_kFaGDKLz7TrAGSUJfPZDzdwXUb6tdsbUuAFs28lNCbCcbMEwFS8f4-UadoiqY=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Reverse of the coin minted in London.</b> </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">/ Credit: Journal of Prehistory and Archaeology</span></span></div><br /><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The researchers said the coins had likely been moved there in the "context of political instability" linked in particular to the invasion of the Suebians, a Germanic people, who pushed into the northwestern part of the Iberian peninsula in the 5th century.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Most of the coins are made of copper and bronze and the largest, weighing more than eight grams. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Romans conquered the Iberian peninsula in 218BC, ruling until they were </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">ousted by the Visigoths</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> in the early fifth century. Researchers have speculated that the latest trove of coins were likely part of a larger haul that was hastily hidden in hopes of keeping them safe amid political and social instability.</span></span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhE2MxiDSxu9hMJPCfiGxoKBgTxcd1BZuN0j9da7gtBz2THPDkSUt6xqAhXtOp8i2y7axLbZVUW0Wu7pRi8v6kDaXPbQVgF7t10yTQuLdFOQo9Ca0mAYY7bHrBlntRYhi4zIfW3_eY0BtVQoAWkButBsI8d1X6X_-uF2koCHetoDqniNOU1ZsIYJiKr=s499" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="319" data-original-width="499" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhE2MxiDSxu9hMJPCfiGxoKBgTxcd1BZuN0j9da7gtBz2THPDkSUt6xqAhXtOp8i2y7axLbZVUW0Wu7pRi8v6kDaXPbQVgF7t10yTQuLdFOQo9Ca0mAYY7bHrBlntRYhi4zIfW3_eY0BtVQoAWkButBsI8d1X6X_-uF2koCHetoDqniNOU1ZsIYJiKr=s16000" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: -webkit-left;">In the late Roman period, coins were minted in a number of cities, mainly because of the danger and cost of moving large quantities of precious metal from place to place. This system was inherited by Byzantium, and in the 6</span><sup style="text-align: -webkit-left;">th</sup><span style="text-align: -webkit-left;"> century there were six mints in the Eastern Empire (Constantinople, Nicomedia, Cyzicus, Antioch [Theoupolis], Alexandria and Thessalonica) and three in the Western provinces that Justinian had reconquered from the Vandals and the Ostrogoths (Carthage, Rome and Ravenna).</span><br /></span></div><p style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"></p><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Gold coins were minted mainly in the capital and consequently have the mint mark <strong>CON</strong> (for Constantinople), with <strong>OB</strong> added on the solidi to show that they were minted of pure gold.</span></div></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.thelocal.es/20220111/burrowing-badger-unearths-roman-era-treasure-in-spain/" target="_blank">(thelocal.es)</a> <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-11/badger-credited-for-unearthing-hoard-of-roman-coins/100748842" target="_blank">(abc.net.au)</a> <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/09/hungry-badger-may-have-uncovered-roman-coins-in-spanish-cave" target="_blank">(theguardian.com)</a></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-20216927674902931222021-12-15T11:14:00.000-08:002021-12-15T11:14:31.185-08:00Logistics in the Eastern Roman Empire Military<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRLXxpQBtcp6LnGiY7RHn_9CQE0TFSWksE46YY_WOXHRUVU4k8N99HJ_wndhSUq5Q5mqLkO2CBYPyZgOAQOo7qrf45jJMFewnjZ4elacogWqC1Z3DRqVwSO9A1LRVcQeHDpiSHSWS-wM8/s501/11wagon+roman.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="376" data-original-width="501" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRLXxpQBtcp6LnGiY7RHn_9CQE0TFSWksE46YY_WOXHRUVU4k8N99HJ_wndhSUq5Q5mqLkO2CBYPyZgOAQOo7qrf45jJMFewnjZ4elacogWqC1Z3DRqVwSO9A1LRVcQeHDpiSHSWS-wM8/s16000/11wagon+roman.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0.8em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Roman supply cart drawn by two mules with a handler.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #747373; font-family: Play, sans-serif; line-height: 20px; margin: 0.8em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://regaltoysoldiers.com/product/req6-roman-supply-cart-mules" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: x-small;">(regaltoysoldiers.com)</span></a><br /></p></div><br /><p class="b-qt qt_130788" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 37px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b>"An army marches on its stomach."</b></span></p><p class="bq_fq_a" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700; margin-bottom: 5px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Napoleon Bonaparte</span></p><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">To a large degree military historians live in a fantasy world of "Great Men and Great Armies" doing battle and do books and movies accordingly. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">What is often forgotten or ignored is the boring matter of logistics . . . of how those troops were able to get there, of how they were fed and supplied. The fact of the matter is without a strong logistical support system any army would soon be boiling their leather shoes or killing dogs for food.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span>Strategy and tactics are easy to understand. But the science of equipping and feeding armed forces on campaign is extremely technical, its mysteries understood by only a few initiates. Still </span><span>more than anything else logistical constraints limit the activities of any army during a war.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">For example, in the 19th century the British military had a <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Land Transportation Corp</u></b> that at one point had 14,000 men and 28,000 beasts.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The maintenance of Eastern Roman armies and the recruitment and equipping of its military expeditions constituted one of the heaviest burdens on the finances of the Empire. From the 7th to the 12th centuries t</span><span style="background-color: white;">here is virtually no contemporary evidence of how armies were raised and supplied even though there were numerous campaigns into the Balkans or against the caliphate on the Eastern Front.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">The Empire's system of building an extensive and well-maintained road network, as well as its absolute command of the Mediterranean for much of its history allowed the navy to supply troops in widely scattered parts areas and then move men and supplies overland. </span><span face="sans-serif"><span style="background-color: white;">Forces were routinely </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">supplied via fixed supply chains</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, and although Roman armies in enemy territory would often supplement or replace this by foraging for food or purchasing food locally.</span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">One historian estimated </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">that a single legion would have required 13.5 tonnes of food per month, and that it would have proved impossible to source this locally.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhx-g-fKS8cERL1S_uKXMytc12P-w2MIzJ_vDIE9VVdkzTe-_INHH5Kt1yVErc6lpEKKxT8yfBPUaBqPOwCh4TzPnZo1sri97_kYx0sloNq3XfKETyw1lixqg5aoTinfNvCaMDfHL2Vqyc/s500/11wagon+legion.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="338" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhx-g-fKS8cERL1S_uKXMytc12P-w2MIzJ_vDIE9VVdkzTe-_INHH5Kt1yVErc6lpEKKxT8yfBPUaBqPOwCh4TzPnZo1sri97_kYx0sloNq3XfKETyw1lixqg5aoTinfNvCaMDfHL2Vqyc/s16000/11wagon+legion.PNG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The methods adopted for equipping and supplying armies </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">crucially affect their fighting ability</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> and potential, as well as the planning and execution of campaign strategy.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">By the ninth century, it is clear that the system of recruiting and maintaining soldiers in what had been the field armies of the late Roman state had undergone a radical transformation, producing the pattern of provincially-based and recruited forces referred to as </span><em style="background-color: white;">themata</em><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><em style="background-color: white;">Themata</em><span style="background-color: white;">, is a term for military forces based in the provinces.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">At the height of the process of provincialized recruitment and maintenance of troops during the eighth and first half of the ninth centuries, there is plenty of evidence to show that voluntary recruitment to both elite and provincial forces, compulsory levies in the provinces, and the attraction of non-Byzantine mercenaries co-existed, and were invoked according to the requirements of the moment.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">According to the treatise on military expeditions compiled by the </span><em style="background-color: white;">magistros</em><span><span style="background-color: white;"> Leo Katakylas, and referring almost certainly to the campaign practice of the emperor Basil I, it is noted that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the </u></b></span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;"><em>prôtonotarios</em><span> of each </span><em>thema</em></u></b><span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;"> through which the imperial force passes must provide certain supplies in kind.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">If this is not sufficient, then the </span><em style="background-color: white;">prôtonotarios</em><span style="background-color: white;"> should obtain the necessary produce from the </span><em style="background-color: white;">eidikon</em><span style="background-color: white;"> - - - which </span><span face="rubik, helvetica, arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">fulfilled the dual function of imperial treasury and storehouse. As a treasury, it stored various precious materials such as silk or gold, and was responsible for the payment of the annual salaries (</span><i style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">rogai</i><span face="rubik, helvetica, arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">) of officials of senatorial rank.</span><span face="rubik, helvetica, arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> As a storehouse, the </span><i style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">eidikon</i><span face="rubik, helvetica, arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> controlled the state factories producing military equipment (the late Roman </span><i style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="new" data-uncrawlable-url="L3dpa2kvRmFicmljYWU/YWN0aW9uPWVkaXQmcmVkbGluaz0x" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Fabricae (page does not exist)">fabricae</span></i><span face="rubik, helvetica, arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">) and was responsible for supplying the necessary </span>matériel<span face="rubik, helvetica, arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> for expeditions, ranging from weapons to "sails, ropes, hides, axes, wax, tin, lead, casks" for the fleet or even Arab clothing for the imperial spies.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">According to these sixth-century regulations, the </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">provincial officials are to be given advance notice of the army’s requirements</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> in foodstuffs and other goods, which are to be deposited at named sites along the route of march. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The materials, food supplies and other requirements demanded by the provincial authorities on behalf of the central government were referred to as </span><em style="background-color: white;">embolê</em><span style="background-color: white;">, and meant simply that part of the regular tax assessment owed by each tax-payer (whether an estate, an individual peasant freeholder, or whatever) not paid in coin. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Exact records of the produce supplied by the tax-payers as </span><em style="background-color: white;">embolê</em><span style="background-color: white;">, were to be kept and reckoned up against the annual tax owed in this form; if more supplies were provided than were due in tax, then the extra was to be supplied by the tax-payers, but this was then </span><em style="background-color: white;">to be paid for</em><span style="background-color: white;">, at a </span><em style="background-color: white;">fixed rate</em><span style="background-color: white;"> established by the appropriate state officials, out of the </span><em style="background-color: white;">cash</em><span style="background-color: white;"> revenues already collected in the regular yearly assessment of that particular province. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">If the provincial treasuries in question had insufficient local cash revenues left over to pay for these extra supplies, then they were to be paid for instead </span><em style="background-color: white;">either</em><span style="background-color: white;"> from the general bank of the praetorian prefecture, in other words, the</span><em style="background-color: white;"> coemptio</em><span style="background-color: white;"> was still applied; or they were to be collected anyway and then their value (at the prices fixed by the state) deducted from the following year’s assessment in kind.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5BaDzjkGb3_Z8roPn1YdlTWfwCjY9sd4c2IWuJKYXrHWTch4eF6uIFy-biD3z0vra6GWJscaGmVoRjKOIzUxfyV6xn7t6ceB3FsZvxGC6iZcDaAN8kx8JV4RiEGZIz05RJIvQ-fpohrI/s500/11wagon+line2.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="246" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5BaDzjkGb3_Z8roPn1YdlTWfwCjY9sd4c2IWuJKYXrHWTch4eF6uIFy-biD3z0vra6GWJscaGmVoRjKOIzUxfyV6xn7t6ceB3FsZvxGC6iZcDaAN8kx8JV4RiEGZIz05RJIvQ-fpohrI/s16000/11wagon+line2.PNG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>An example of the Roman Navy bringing in troops </b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>and setting up a supply chain to support inland operations.</b></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In the ninth and tenth centuries, is similar: the thematic </span><em style="background-color: white;">prôtonotarios</em><span style="background-color: white;"> is to be informed in advance as to the army’s requirements, which are to be provided from the land-tax in kind and the cash revenues of the </span><em style="background-color: white;">thema</em><span><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">stored at appropriate points along the route of march.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> An exact account of the supplies is to be kept, so that (where the thematic tax-payers provided more than their yearly assessment demands) the amount can be deducted (from the assessment for the following year).</span></span><br /></span><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">It is clear from these texts that the basic fiscal mechanisms in the sixth and the ninth centuries were almost identical: the terminology had changed, and the administrative relationships between the different departments responsible for the procedure was slightly different, but in essentials the later system was very obviously derived from the earlier. The process by which the evolution of the later process out of the earlier occurred nicely illustrates the degree of systemic continuity between late Roman and middle Byzantine practices.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Armies were usually accompanied by a supply-train</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">; the late tenth-century treatise on campaign organization stipulates a basic supply of 24 days’ rations of barley for the horses, which according to other sources was similarly to be put aside by the thematic </span></span><em style="background-color: white;">prôtonotarios </em><span style="background-color: white;">for collection by the army en route; and historians’ accounts of campaigns frequently mention the baggage-train or the supplies and fodder it carried. </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Smaller units clearly foraged for their own fodder and supplies, whether in enemy territory or on Roman soil, which must have caused some hardship to the communities affected; while once on hostile terrain the commander must either have arranged to keep his supply-lines open by detaching small units to hold key passes and roads, or let the army forage for all its requirements once the supplies had run out.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Leo VI advised generals to carry sufficient supplies with the army and to forage on enemy territory rather than prey upon the citizens of the Empire; </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the need to avoid harming the provincials</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> by permitting the army to forage and extract supplies without proper administrative controls is often repeated.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The average length of a day’s march for infantry or combined forces was probably rarely more than twelve – fourteen miles. </span><span style="background-color: white;">The distances at which supply dumps could be established or stops made to feed and water men and animals was also directly related to the distance covered in a day’s march.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiN6HeKy9NmA61o5L7ZfTKliY2plwb8CR-DKnuPL451DQp9jRCDzJYrUQakX9PW7KhGJLcPAAYtfqAmDvIXc9OMzcwgRBByG7JM8CuPsgk9A2t_PqmFyaKFtMaTagDhX0iTrs6-gNMgGLY/s500/11wagon+train.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="382" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiN6HeKy9NmA61o5L7ZfTKliY2plwb8CR-DKnuPL451DQp9jRCDzJYrUQakX9PW7KhGJLcPAAYtfqAmDvIXc9OMzcwgRBByG7JM8CuPsgk9A2t_PqmFyaKFtMaTagDhX0iTrs6-gNMgGLY/s16000/11wagon+train.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b style="font-family: inherit;">American Civil War. A military supply wagon train entering Petersburg VA. Getting food and supplies to the </b><b>front-line</b><b style="font-family: inherit;"> troops was just as important as leadership. </b></span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">In the fifth century, it was recommended that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">soldiers be trained to carry a load of up to sixty Roman pounds</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> (about 42.3 lbs./19.6 kilos). I</span></span><span style="background-color: white;">n the late sixth century </span><em style="background-color: white;">Stratêgikon</em><span style="background-color: white;">, which also recommends that cavalry soldiers carry three to four days’ supply with them in their saddle bags.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Rations were consumed on a three-day rotation in the late Roman period: </span><em style="background-color: white;">bucellatum</em><span style="background-color: white;"> (hard tack) for 2 days in 3, bread for 1 day in 3, salt pork for 1 day in 3, mutton for 2 days in 3, wine and sour wine on alternate days; as well as a number of additional substances such as fish, cheese and oil, depending on context and availability. The amount (weight) of such rations varied, but the figure of 1 lb. (11.28 oz/327 g) of meat and/or 2 – 3 lbs (1.41 lbs/654 g – 2.1 lbs/981 g) of bread </span><em style="background-color: white;">per diem</em><span style="background-color: white;"> per man given in one document for stationary troops seems to have been standard into the seventh century in Egypt</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">This campaign ration would give the maximum sixty-(Roman) pound load per man for about twenty days; although under normal marching conditions much of the individuals’ supplies would be </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">transported by pack-animal or wagon</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, as noted above. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A fifteen-thousand man army would thus require a minimum of some 900,000 (Roman) lbs. (i.e. 634,500 lbs or 288,400 kilos) of provisions, excluding drinking water/wine and necessary ‘extras’, such as lard and/or oil, cheese or fish, and so on, and not including fodder for the horses and the pack-animals, for a period of between two and, in exceptional cases, three weeks. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Assuming an average rate of march for infantry and cavalry together of between twelve and fourteen miles per day in good conditions (an optimistically high figure compared with the majority of known military marches from pre-industrial contexts), such a force could thus travel some </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">240-280 miles</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> in a three-week march, which provides </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a very crude guide to the distances at which supply dumps would have had to be established in advance. </u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">This figure is confirmed by the tenth-century treatise on campaign organization, which notes that ‘it is not feasible, in turn, for an army to transport more than a twenty-four days’ supply of barley from its own country for its horses’, which suggests the recognized maximum period for a cavalry force</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">We may conclude that major supply dumps were needed at stages of approximately 200 – 250 miles, although under very good conditions and with smaller numbers imperial forces may have moved more rapidly than this and needed re-supplying less frequently; fast-moving cavalry forces will have been even less demanding, although ample fodder and water will have been essential.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, Garamond, Baskerville, "times new roman", Times, serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR2lsiSJoUj8x7mC_06A7UPKDzaua6mzqaP_W4oII_FTtB-heCf5TMKc4f505ifAz_hRjhZSiWhvjFH6NZXuvuNeY1Hpn36-0eG5SSLahz_iUNhpDsKoke5cEwVOan2aLwaJpxrdXNCdo/s500/11byzantine+navy.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="313" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR2lsiSJoUj8x7mC_06A7UPKDzaua6mzqaP_W4oII_FTtB-heCf5TMKc4f505ifAz_hRjhZSiWhvjFH6NZXuvuNeY1Hpn36-0eG5SSLahz_iUNhpDsKoke5cEwVOan2aLwaJpxrdXNCdo/s16000/11byzantine+navy.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>The Roman Navy was of major importance in the endless campaigns against the Arab Muslims, the Normans and Slavs. Roman troops and supplies often needed to be moved over huge distances to Africa, the Balkans or Italy.</b></span> </div><br /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, Garamond, Baskerville, "times new roman", Times, serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Travelling across Anatolia presented a number of difficulties, even before entering hostile territory. From Constantinople as far as Dorylaion, which at 792 m above sea-level is situated near the northern limit of the Anatolian plateau, fodder will have been relatively easily obtained. Thereafter, as Crusader accounts make clear, armies will have had to carry much of their provisions and fodder with them until they reached the more fertile region around Ikonion.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">Horses and mules were raised from a variety of different sources. If the imperial household was involved, then all the main state departments, the leading civil and military officers, the metropolitanates and the monastic houses of the empire had to provide a certain number of mules or other pack-animals to transport the household and its requirements. For regular non-imperial campaigns </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the main sources for the army were imperial stud-farms in Asia Minor</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> requisitions from the estates of the Church, requisitions from secular landholders</span></span><span style="background-color: white;">; and the soldiers themselves, who either brought their own animals or were required to purchase their requirements on the market using their salaries and campaign payments.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">There is no evidence to suggest that the pattern of administration of expeditionary forces changed very markedly between the later tenth and later eleventh centuries. We can assume that preparations were made as before, informing thematic officials of the necessary requirements, which had to be prepared in advance ready for the army to collect, and that supplies provided were set against the annual tax demand for the region in question.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The imposition required by local districts of billeting and feeding soldiers and officers, grinding corn and baking bread, and providing extra supplies for units passing through or based in a district, providing craftsmen and artisans for public and military works, burning charcoal, providing labor for the maintenance or construction of roads and bridges, had </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">existed from Roman times and are still found, sometimes under slightly different names, in the eleventh century.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> But in addition, from the middle of the seventh century and certainly by the tenth and eleventh centuries a group of new impositions had evolved, including the provision or fabrication of weapons and items of military equipment.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The fiscalised </span><em style="background-color: white;">strateia</em><span style="background-color: white;"> was still collected by state officials as a further source of revenue for the maintenance of the armies; so that it is not correct to suggest that the registers of thematic </span><em style="background-color: white;">stratiôtai</em><span style="background-color: white;"> were entirely neglected – it was from these that the regular </span><em style="background-color: white;">tagmata</em><span style="background-color: white;"> of the themes were recruited, and upon the basis of which the fiscalised </span><em style="background-color: white;">strateia</em><span style="background-color: white;"> was also extracted. By the time of the Mantzikert campaign, however, and as a result of imperial neglect and reductions in military salaries, the regular or Roman tagmatic forces recruited from each </span><em style="background-color: white;">thema</em><span style="background-color: white;"> were reduced in number and poorly equipped: emperors had not taken to the field themselves for many years, and the revenues from the </span><em style="background-color: white;">strateiai</em><span style="background-color: white;"> had been employed for other than military expenditures.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The basic requirements for the organisation of military expeditions and campaigns in the eleventh century remained the same as in the preceding centuries. What changed were the conditions under which those requirements had to be met.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8DShAdTazG236hk67ZoxFJEuCNwhaJuUB93nH69eWLYOPDfi1hyphenhypheniqTpMnllcV2WW97MOzVvAPO_ImrdZ0RBR6bkQuP2IFXl2V3F2cFWA4nFRyqIzO2jIYLq7rOaTPu5HggIV5I1y0nkg/s500/11wagon+wwi.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="324" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8DShAdTazG236hk67ZoxFJEuCNwhaJuUB93nH69eWLYOPDfi1hyphenhypheniqTpMnllcV2WW97MOzVvAPO_ImrdZ0RBR6bkQuP2IFXl2V3F2cFWA4nFRyqIzO2jIYLq7rOaTPu5HggIV5I1y0nkg/s16000/11wagon+wwi.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A World War I soldier drives an escort wagon through water logged fields and roads. Note the spare wheel carried behind the driver; attrition of vehicles was high.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://www.worldwar1centennial.org/index.php/brookeusa-ancillary-industries/4590-brookeusa-animal-drawn-vehicles.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: inherit;">(worldwar1centennial.org)</span></a><br /></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In the campaign against the Turks conducted by Romanos IV after his accession, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the regular entrenched camps, the accompanying supply-train and the supplies</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> carried with the army are all referred to. Such supplies were raised by the various fiscal and military officials mentioned in the exemptions granted to monastic landlords. In Byzantine territory, and presumably when the army arrived in a district which was not warned in advance, troops were sent out to purchase corn and other requirements from the local populations.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">For the Mantzikert campaign, Romanos could raise as many as some 60,000 men in all, according to a recent estimate. He seems also to have been </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">able to rely on the traditional means of raising and distributing supplies</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> for his troops while they were en route to confront the Seljuk forces, although the arrangements did not always work especially well: Attaleiates notes that the troops, and the foreign mercenary forces in particular, caused considerable damage to the region around Krya Pêgê. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">His supply train was considerable, as the presence of a large number of wagons with siege equipment appears to testify, suggesting that the central armories, the local provincial officials and the commanders of the army were able effectively to co-operate on the traditional pattern for the provisioning and equipping of the imperial troops. Once in territory which had been in hostile hands, however, he was forced to forage for provisions: the Franks under Roussel de Bailleul based near Chliat were ordered to seize the harvested crops; the troops from Theodosioupolis were ordered to provide two months’ supplies for themselves; and Matthew of Edessa notes that some 12,000 troops were sent towards Abkhazia to find supplies.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The military treatises of the tenth century and the historians’ accounts of many of the campaigns of this period show that foraging for supplies was one of the most risk-laden activities which the commander had to organize – failure to guard against surprise attack, on the one hand, and the failure of the foragers to locate and secure adequate provisions could prove disastrous.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The later tenth- and eleventh-century sources the documents suggest that a wide range of state impositions on the rural population was maintained to ensure the adequate arming, equipping and provisioning of troops.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The </span><em style="background-color: white;">synônarioi</em><span style="background-color: white;">,</span><em style="background-color: white;">strateutai</em><span style="background-color: white;">, </span><em style="background-color: white;">chartoularioi</em><span style="background-color: white;"> of the </span><em style="background-color: white;">themata</em><span style="background-color: white;">, and many others such as </span><em style="background-color: white;">epoptai</em><span style="background-color: white;">, are referred to, officials responsible for raising the supplies needed for the army, for registering or raising the soldiers in each province, and related issues. </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Their existence illustrates the continued effectiveness of the central authorities in extracting resources</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> for its troops. Some of the letters of Theophylact of Ochrid, referred to already, mention these officials and their exactions. </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">It was these officials who will have been responsible for the arrangements made by Alexios in the 1090s for the passage and provisioning of the Crusader forces, arrangements whose success demonstrates the continued efficiency of the imperial military and provincial administration in catering for its armies at this time.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">There were enormous demands made upon the ordinary population of the empire when a military expedition was undertaken. This required an administrative structure which could deal with all facets of the armies’ needs, whether in terms of raising and equipping new recruits or in respect of supplying the vast number of men, horses, mules and other animals which an army on the march needed. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">What is evident, and important to recognize, is that the basic structures which had evolved by the late Roman period retained their relevance in the early and middle Byzantine period; but it is also apparent that those structures continued to evolve and to develop in response to the changed context.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/g1Vo8VnazNw" title="YouTube video player" width="550"></iframe>
</p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://deremilitari.org/2014/05/the-organisation-and-support-of-an-expeditionary-force-manpower-and-logistics-in-the-middle-byzantine-period/" target="_blank">(deremilitari.org)</a> <a href="https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2020/05/30/logistics-in-roman-warfare/" target="_blank">(weaponsandwarfare.com)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" target="_blank">(Military of ancient Rome)</a></p><p><a href="https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/1999/1999.11.01/" target="_blank">(brynmawr.edu)</a> <a href="https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Epi_tou_eidikou" target="_blank">(military-history.fandom.com)</a></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-48708166744603948282021-10-26T20:03:00.000-07:002021-10-26T20:03:21.326-07:00Justiniana Prima - Roman Fortified City<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibRN0he1GqbLJoF24jIJH-shF92lr-uTlzu9FGDiAJyuZRpbusaibqoI9pghTk48dVPbR8R-zkc26LX5-ru0hS-yf7gMpe7kc9k8CIH9rTPPQQVOMVPgoB6ajOaCufKL8G2Iou4p_Zd5M/s500/11justinia.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibRN0he1GqbLJoF24jIJH-shF92lr-uTlzu9FGDiAJyuZRpbusaibqoI9pghTk48dVPbR8R-zkc26LX5-ru0hS-yf7gMpe7kc9k8CIH9rTPPQQVOMVPgoB6ajOaCufKL8G2Iou4p_Zd5M/s16000/11justinia.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Remnants of the city of Justiniana Prima</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><u>Defending The Roman Balkans</u></span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><u>The City-Fortress of Justiniana Prima</u></span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">In the centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire it is hard to believe that there were any people at all left in Central Asia - - - just about every tribe imaginable marched southwest and invaded the Eastern Roman Empire.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222;" /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">By the year 500AD the entire northern bank of the Danube from Belgrade to the Black Sea was occupied by one Slavic tribe or another. Why these tribes showed up no one knows. But in their desire for loot, slaves or land they put mounting pressure on the Roman frontier. Two of the earliest Slavic tribes were the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antes_(people)" style="background-color: white; color: #2288bb; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">Antes</span></a><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"> and the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclaveni" style="background-color: white; color: #2288bb; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">Sclaveni</span>.</a></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Justiniana Prima</b><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"> was </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">one of the many fortified</u></b></span><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;"> cities founded by the Emperor Justinian</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> to help stabilize the Balkan frontier. The city existed from 535 to 615 </span></span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">near modern </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebane" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Lebane">Lebane</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in southern </span>Serbia<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. The city </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">served as the metropolitan seat of the </span>Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, that had jurisdiction over the provinces of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Dacia" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Diocese of Dacia">Diocese of Dacia</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The city was a completely new foundation in honour of the nearby village of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauresium" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); outline-color: rgb(51, 102, 204);" target="_blank" title=""><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Tauresium</span></a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, the birthplace of Justinian. According to Procopius </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Bederiana</b><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, the birthplace of Justinian's uncle and mentor </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_I" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Justin I">Justin I</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> was nearby.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Justinian himself ordered the foundation of the city by law in 535, establishing the </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima</b><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, making it at the same time the capital of the prefecture of </span>Illyricum<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> instead of </span>Thessaloniki<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (although this is disputed among historians). </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Justinian made sure that this city, which was one of his favorite projects, received all the necessary support.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><dl style="background-color: white; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #202122;">"He therefore built a wall of small compass about this place in the form of a square, placing a tower at each corner, and caused it to be called, as it actually is, Tetrapyrgia. And close by this place he built a very notable city which he named Justiniana Prima, thus paying a debt of gratitude to the home that fostered him. In that place also he constructed an aqueduct and so caused the city to be abundantly supplied with ever-running water. And many other enterprises were carried out by the founder of this city - works of great size and worthy of especial note. For to enumerate the churches is not easy, and it is impossible to tell in words of the lodgings for magistrates, the great </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Stoa"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">stoas</span></a><span style="color: #202122;">, the fine marketplaces, the fountains, the streets, the baths, the shops. In brief, the city is both great and populous and blessed in every way."</span></span></dd><dd style="color: #202122; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Procopius' description of Justiniana Prima in <i>The Buildings</i>.</span></dd></dl><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The town was abandoned at around 615. Invading <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a> coming from north of the Danube may be one factor, missing political interest in the town after the time of Justinian may be another. </span></p></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGNhxfFGsbbHVURMvnStzgtBj-RQSKryKKQVyhc9kjcjIY1vDHSAdRkC_qHOcnXY4dM7yH-sdufyCmujiiHcWWpgf_bKO_y4wBzLdAV2dj1mSmvkOEgA2Eit98t0FMWTyYnoFsSFvCp9I/s501/11justinia66.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="334" data-original-width="501" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGNhxfFGsbbHVURMvnStzgtBj-RQSKryKKQVyhc9kjcjIY1vDHSAdRkC_qHOcnXY4dM7yH-sdufyCmujiiHcWWpgf_bKO_y4wBzLdAV2dj1mSmvkOEgA2Eit98t0FMWTyYnoFsSFvCp9I/s16000/11justinia66.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Recreation of Justiniana Prima</span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAV6Yno_nyzyuIY-Eh9MK46zIcIBu3o80ijFOCC6F85Uam_YA30syzfcFIpHN0m6s-aA7IJ_tg6vjp3TH6AppxFxeAIAexLwMmPc4CXQo0HLv9igFJvWTKW5WVKTKp6GLwQZPaGh8aPHo/s500/11justinia88.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="234" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAV6Yno_nyzyuIY-Eh9MK46zIcIBu3o80ijFOCC6F85Uam_YA30syzfcFIpHN0m6s-aA7IJ_tg6vjp3TH6AppxFxeAIAexLwMmPc4CXQo0HLv9igFJvWTKW5WVKTKp6GLwQZPaGh8aPHo/s16000/11justinia88.png" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><u>Contemporary Historian Procopius</u></b>:</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: justify;">Thus did the Emperor Justinian fortify the whole interior of Illyricum. I shall also explain in what manner he fortified the bank of the Ister River, which they also call the Danube, by means of strongholds and garrisons of troops.</span><span style="text-align: justify;"> </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: justify;">The Roman Emperors of former times, by way of preventing the crossing of the Danube by the barbarians who live on the other side, occupied the entire bank of this river with strongholds, and not the right bank of the stream alone, for in some parts of it they built towns and fortresses on its other bank. </span><span style="text-align: justify;">However, they did not so build these strongholds that they were impossible to attack, if anyone should come against them, but </span></span><span class="pagenum" style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; position: absolute; right: 1.5em; text-align: right; top: auto; width: 70px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: justify;">they only provided that the bank of the river was not left destitute of men, since the barbarians there had no knowledge of storming walls. </span><span style="text-align: justify;"> </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: justify;">In fact the majority of these strongholds consisted only of <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a single tower</u></b>, and they were called appropriately "lone towers," and very few men were stationed in them. </span><span style="text-align: justify;"> At that time this alone was quite sufficient to frighten off the barbarian clans, so that they would not undertake to attack the Romans. </span><span style="text-align: justify;"> But at a later time</span><span style="text-align: justify;"> Attila invaded with a great army, and with no difficulty razed the fortresses; then, with no one standing against him, he plundered the greater part of the Roman Empire. </span><span style="text-align: justify;"> </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: justify;">But the Emperor Justinian rebuilt the defences which had been torn down, not simply as they had been before, but so as to give the fortifications the greatest possible strength; and he added many more which he built himself. </span><span style="text-align: justify;"> In this way <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">he completely restored the safety of the Roman Empire</u></b>, which by then had been lost.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZ9qmHI_VGO99xUgDON_V4Mbohh3OHuzs5WtHyZPunXuY8lCkleeONSGV2C_mPdNgCm1ly_1YZtpy8Lw3jo7HYKpU9I-A94n44LtHmG5jxWOP9CgnNagV3sdTR8CbabCwt-Oj3RKHxL_g/s476/11limes4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="319" data-original-width="476" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZ9qmHI_VGO99xUgDON_V4Mbohh3OHuzs5WtHyZPunXuY8lCkleeONSGV2C_mPdNgCm1ly_1YZtpy8Lw3jo7HYKpU9I-A94n44LtHmG5jxWOP9CgnNagV3sdTR8CbabCwt-Oj3RKHxL_g/s16000/11limes4.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">A recreation of a "single tower" Roman fortification.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-XRojUlJCItqlsNliZZag3VVZ7U1rkp4nFvnbJpCrl7N6TvUyj4iGZBbREPGl04CUrruJeuvlCQiTHKFkW4_IgOKIUzPfr7wxSVOUGiHtLfBV-xA6vEKlGtyjEY8iHQfQq0Q2ynyL0oQ/s720/11justinia22.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="540" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-XRojUlJCItqlsNliZZag3VVZ7U1rkp4nFvnbJpCrl7N6TvUyj4iGZBbREPGl04CUrruJeuvlCQiTHKFkW4_IgOKIUzPfr7wxSVOUGiHtLfBV-xA6vEKlGtyjEY8iHQfQq0Q2ynyL0oQ/s16000/11justinia22.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><b style="color: #202122;">Justiniana Prima</b> in 1937. Photo archive of the </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: left;">Military Geographical Institute of Serbia</span><span style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap;">.</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4acdPa_3e5uN3zmunFiOXoy7wR0ECO9MU1C6gVVrgZvRsxG3ij6O6AN70A03Ld9HlSg0yEhLy0XEbU88lGLFFS8hSV4sFkBskNFiMHIFm2QNQKpCmcHG62Zpc7zVqn4FxKYu_96cpQoc/s500/11justinia33.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4acdPa_3e5uN3zmunFiOXoy7wR0ECO9MU1C6gVVrgZvRsxG3ij6O6AN70A03Ld9HlSg0yEhLy0XEbU88lGLFFS8hSV4sFkBskNFiMHIFm2QNQKpCmcHG62Zpc7zVqn4FxKYu_96cpQoc/s16000/11justinia33.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: large; text-align: left;">Justiniana Prima</b></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_ZaLn0OYpDx0P7a2Ql0yp9DZLLCzBUTBvCh9v44F34OZNL3S9bthiashOoPGy5_l1-6bzuc6HbqENIfFuVESHo12VtlZMWVexWQKLQjLiF5zeZ3QF7GyULEpEQfMm6GZ18quftbZCoyI/s699/11justinia44.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="699" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_ZaLn0OYpDx0P7a2Ql0yp9DZLLCzBUTBvCh9v44F34OZNL3S9bthiashOoPGy5_l1-6bzuc6HbqENIfFuVESHo12VtlZMWVexWQKLQjLiF5zeZ3QF7GyULEpEQfMm6GZ18quftbZCoyI/s16000/11justinia44.PNG" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh60tLvF-stq27rlQQxbOHOpmgSQHbZQEwilvmWiEUMZQWwl_eTPar9j-zuJcZ-yQtTPYZ5d9vMAV8NMKw30hF-fW2iYeP95_KTbuOlsggdmdag0cwRs4HqdLvykFDneDVRVVd3Az4Xhuw/s500/11justinia55.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="334" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh60tLvF-stq27rlQQxbOHOpmgSQHbZQEwilvmWiEUMZQWwl_eTPar9j-zuJcZ-yQtTPYZ5d9vMAV8NMKw30hF-fW2iYeP95_KTbuOlsggdmdag0cwRs4HqdLvykFDneDVRVVd3Az4Xhuw/s16000/11justinia55.PNG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><p><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gsphkU1y3Gs" title="YouTube video player" width="550"></iframe>
</p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEoF-n2uRy_aCgD26MJ72xcuQR-mo-ZmU6Mj55mH6SyFI8_EdKNog_EGR-8F-apYIpDg4lXIvKqtrHpsCMcevpq48COesm4QZfj-NfLdLjhqNBGS-5C3Kbg8Th_x1hX5TWn6qoXCJJb78/s599/11slavs.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="483" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEoF-n2uRy_aCgD26MJ72xcuQR-mo-ZmU6Mj55mH6SyFI8_EdKNog_EGR-8F-apYIpDg4lXIvKqtrHpsCMcevpq48COesm4QZfj-NfLdLjhqNBGS-5C3Kbg8Th_x1hX5TWn6qoXCJJb78/s16000/11slavs.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Endless Slavic tribes pounded the Roman </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">fortifications in the Balkans.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLndWPpEnwjvnKmcWxyJYLI_rcf1qhYcXL_ypvIRSAKqK5HSEyWxBQwd8oMqqtXgIAEwMNs2N3jvxz6vziDxuboY2aCkX7xTjFKkQ9Ob1qtFmaKSfJwreWtzCpXTQbRqUHjNwar9FsYp0/s500/11Slavic_tribes_in_the_Balkans+%2528500x408%2529.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="408" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLndWPpEnwjvnKmcWxyJYLI_rcf1qhYcXL_ypvIRSAKqK5HSEyWxBQwd8oMqqtXgIAEwMNs2N3jvxz6vziDxuboY2aCkX7xTjFKkQ9Ob1qtFmaKSfJwreWtzCpXTQbRqUHjNwar9FsYp0/s16000/11Slavic_tribes_in_the_Balkans+%2528500x408%2529.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>The Collapse of the Roman Empire</u></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">By 650 AD (map above) the Balkan Roman frontier was in complete collapse with Slavic tribes advancing all the way to southern Greece. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The first appearance of the Slavs in the Eastern Roman Empire can be dated no earlier than the 6th century. Throughout this century, beginning with the reign of Justinian, Slavs repeatedly invaded the Balkan possessions of the Empire. Not until the reign of Maurice, however, did any Slavs settle in these territories. Between the years 579-587 there took place the irruption of several barbarian waves led by the Avars, but consisting mostly of Slavs. The latter came in great numbers, and, as the troops of the Empire were engaged in the war with Persia, they roamed the country at will.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Slavs devastated Illyricum and Thrace, penetrated deep into Greece and the Peloponnesus, helped the Avars to take numerous cities, including Singidunum, Viminacium (Kostolac), Durostorum (Silistria), Marcianopolis, Anchialus, and Corinth, and in 586 laid siege to the city of Thessalonica, the first of a series of great sieges which that city was destined to undergo at their hands. What is more, they came to stay.</span></span></div></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Procopius/Buildings/4B*.html" target="_blank">(Procopius Buildings)</a> <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5539/" target="_blank">(unesco)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justiniana_Prima" target="_blank">(Justiniana)</a></p><p><a href="https://www.panacomp.net/empress-town-iustiniana-prima-archaeological-site/" target="_blank">(panacomp.net)</a> <a href="https://justiniana-prima.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">(justiniana-prima.blogspot.com)</a></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-73249183687635443832021-09-21T14:23:00.005-07:002021-09-21T14:28:32.806-07:00The Military Theme of Anatolic<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaqrP4SHz3v1Hucc9gTe7mjl_NrIJYskrsodLiK3Gdc-1n8f0RPTsyin4xutRQI5jxguqFxM77Q-JCWvZ-QSmlW9PPOKcIUL9-mItxBqFYVHqjiTiL2Y4WETgDNKqvXfNMS4RWJPK0dyA/s666/Byzantine+reenactor44.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="666" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaqrP4SHz3v1Hucc9gTe7mjl_NrIJYskrsodLiK3Gdc-1n8f0RPTsyin4xutRQI5jxguqFxM77Q-JCWvZ-QSmlW9PPOKcIUL9-mItxBqFYVHqjiTiL2Y4WETgDNKqvXfNMS4RWJPK0dyA/s16000/Byzantine+reenactor44.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b>Eastern Roman Reenactor</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The thick felt cap wrapped with a turban, worn with the thick padded coat and high boots was considered basic but adequate battle gear. Likewise the axe was minimum regulation weaponry.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://www.cosplayisland.co.uk/costume/view/33777" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Cosplayisland.co.uk</span></a><br /></span></span></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><strong><u><span style="font-size: large;">First themes: 7th–8th centuries</span></u></strong><span style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The massive Arab invasions forced major changes in the Eastern Roman military. At some point in the mid-7th century, probably in the late 630s and 640s, the Empire's field armies were withdrawn to Anatolia, the last major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire. The armies were assigned to the districts that became known as the themes.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">For 500 years the Eastern Roman heartland of Anatolia was ground zero for endless invasions by Arab Muslim forces and counter attacks by Roman troops.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">At the heart of the battle against Islam was the </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Anatolic Theme</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, more properly known as the </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Theme of the Anatolics</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, was an Eastern Roman</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span>theme<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (a military-civilian province) in central </span>Asia Minor<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">From its establishment, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">it was the largest and senior-most of the themes</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, and its military governors (</span></span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategos" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Strategos">stratēgoi</a></i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">) were powerful individuals, several of them rising to the imperial throne or launching failed rebellions to capture it. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The theme and its army played an important role in the </span>Arab–Byzantine wars<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> of the 7th–10th centuries, after which it enjoyed a period of relative peace that lasted until its conquest by the </span>Seljuk Turks<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in the late 1070s.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Initially, the Anatolic Theme included the western and southern shores of Asia Minor as well, but by c. 720 they were split off to form the </span>Thracesian<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and </span>Cibyrrhaeot<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> themes.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Under </span>Theophilos<span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"> (r. 829–842), its eastern and south-eastern portions, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">facing the </u></b></span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Arab frontier zone</u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and including the forts that guarded the northern entrance to the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilician_Gates" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Cilician Gates">Cilician Gates</a><span style="white-space: nowrap;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The theme's capital was </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorium" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Amorium">Amorium</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, until the </span>sack of the city<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> by the </span>Abbasids<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in 838.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> After that, it was probably transferred to the nearby fortress of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybotos" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Polybotos">Polybotos</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKSR-CjxqGiw7Phn_K7Myt8g84sCZx7c8X22uyCQ95oJisvL0rNZ7OCTE9bnzjEMJmMPLxW21sDS6EjkbDzc7r9FzE3H01t_jM2FIAueDWO_3u3J_ov_0sMf1V1682mFAPaLkx3OI52VE/s500/11Byzantine_Empire_Themata-650-en_svg.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="308" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKSR-CjxqGiw7Phn_K7Myt8g84sCZx7c8X22uyCQ95oJisvL0rNZ7OCTE9bnzjEMJmMPLxW21sDS6EjkbDzc7r9FzE3H01t_jM2FIAueDWO_3u3J_ov_0sMf1V1682mFAPaLkx3OI52VE/s16000/11Byzantine_Empire_Themata-650-en_svg.png" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">The </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">themes</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> or </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"><i lang="el-Latn" title="Greek-language text">thémata</i></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> were the main military/</span>administrative divisions<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> of the Eastern Roman</span> Empire<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">. They were established in the mid-7th century in the aftermath of the Slavic invasion of the Balkans and </span>Muslim conquests<span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">. </span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">T</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: left;">he first themes were created from the areas of encampment of the field armies of the </span>East Roman Army<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: left;">, and their names corresponded to the military units that had existed in those areas.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px; text-align: left;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZHeQwz1tvpxh9p7FosQma66V-BiRMPALlL7D9Khqtv18RpVL4ZrHFXMpeIjJCoPIQKflsBF0SLlL9Si_1qXYz12yWyeDqiLtXBHGeIxTiGROyIsYwfc57JSROCv5kKbJe6vCtHWw4Q6c/s800/11empire+650.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="366" data-original-width="800" height="183" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZHeQwz1tvpxh9p7FosQma66V-BiRMPALlL7D9Khqtv18RpVL4ZrHFXMpeIjJCoPIQKflsBF0SLlL9Si_1qXYz12yWyeDqiLtXBHGeIxTiGROyIsYwfc57JSROCv5kKbJe6vCtHWw4Q6c/w400-h183/11empire+650.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click to Enlarge</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Roman Empire in 650 under Constans II. The Anatolic Theme </span><span style="background-color: white;">would have been created roughly about this time. Arab forces had </span><span style="background-color: white;">captured Syria and Egypt. The themes in Asia Minor were created </span><span style="background-color: white;">to organize defenses against the Arabs.</span></span></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">According to the 10th-century </span>Arab<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> geographers </span>Qudama ibn Ja'far<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and </span>Ibn al-Faqih<span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">, the Anatolic Theme, "the largest of the provinces of the Romans", </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">fielded 15,000 men, and contained 34 fortresses.</u></b></span><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;"> </u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">It and its military governor, or </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategos" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Strategos">stratēgos</a></i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, first attested in 690, ranked first in precedence among the theme governors. As such, the "</span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">stratēgos</i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> of the Anatolics"</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> was one of the highest in the Empire, and one of the few posts from which </span>eunuchs<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> were specifically barred. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The holders of the post received an annual salary of 40 pounds of gold, and are attested as holding the senior court ranks of </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrikios" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Patrikios">patrikios</a></i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthypatos" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Anthypatos">anthypatos</a></i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, and </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protospatharios" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Protospatharios">prōtospatharios</a></i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. In addition, they were the only ones to be appointed to the exceptional post of </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monostrategos" style="background: none; color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Monostrategos">monostrategos</a></i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> ("single-general"), overall commander of the Asian land themes.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The exact date of the theme's establishment is unknown. Along with the other original themes, it was created sometime after the 640s as a military encampment area for the remnants of the old field armies of the </span>East Roman army<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, which were withdrawn to </span>Asia Minor<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in the face of the </span>Muslim conquests<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Anatolic Theme was settled and took its name from the Army of the </span>East<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The theme is attested for the first time in 669, while the army itself is mentioned, as the </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">exercitus Orientalis</i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, as late as an </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">iussio</i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_II" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in 687.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">The thematic capital, Amorium, was also </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a frequent target of the Arabs.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> It was attacked already in 644, captured in 646, and briefly occupied in 669. The Arabs reached it again in 708 and besieged it without success in 716, during their </span></span>march on Constantinople<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMPLp16xkKemGKuYDR3EjZvPOa5anX1zvvXJ11l4e7jRWdLEGlP6JoTnkqNV4unIpkGH0wJ9QJlZRCOnLenV0u4mBbw1ML4iWuvhzPYKLH1unCLsZmW_7WENn3Pic3IXEa-eINKiHOavM/s540/11byzantine+forts.png" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="474" data-original-width="540" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMPLp16xkKemGKuYDR3EjZvPOa5anX1zvvXJ11l4e7jRWdLEGlP6JoTnkqNV4unIpkGH0wJ9QJlZRCOnLenV0u4mBbw1ML4iWuvhzPYKLH1unCLsZmW_7WENn3Pic3IXEa-eINKiHOavM/s16000/11byzantine+forts.png" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; text-align: left;">Map of the Eastern Roman-Arab frontier zone in southeastern </span>Asia Minor<span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; text-align: left;">, with the major fortresses.</span></span></div><br /><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The tide of the Arab attacks ebbed in the 740s, after the Byzantine victory at the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Akroinon" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Battle of Akroinon">Battle of Akroinon</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and the turmoil of Muslim civil wars. U</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">nder Emperor </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_V" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (r. 741–775), the Anatolics spearheaded the Roman campaigns into Arab-held territory. This in turn provoked the reaction of the </span>Abbasid Caliphate<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, which in the quarter-century after 780 launched repeated invasions of Roman Asia Minor. Thus the Anatolics suffered a heavy defeat </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kopidnadon" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Battle of Kopidnadon">at Kopidnadon</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in 788, and Amorium was threatened again in 797.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">In the early years of the 9th century, Cappadocia was the focus of Arab attacks, which culminated in the </span>great invasion of 806<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> led by Caliph </span>Harun al-Rashid<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (r. 786–809) himself, which took </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclea_Cybistra" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Heraclea Cybistra">Heraclea Cybistra</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and several other forts.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The </span>late antique<span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">urban fabric suffered considerably from the Arab attacks and the concomitant decline of urbanization</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, but most of the cities in the interior of the theme, i.e. in Phrygia and Pisidia, survived, albeit in a reduced form. The cities of eastern Cappadocia </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">which bordered the Caliphate were practically destroyed</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">With new Roman settlers moving east </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Arab raids were often absorbed there, and seldom reached the Anatolic Theme's territory.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Apart from the Caliph</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">'s great invasion against Amorium in 838, some attacks penetrated into the Anatolics' territory are reported for the year 878, when the thematic troops successfully defended </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistheia" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Mistheia">Mistheia</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, and again in 888, 894 and 897, always in the southeastern portion of the theme around </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconium" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Iconium">Iconium</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The first </span>Turkish<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> attack on the theme is recorded in 1069, when the Turks attacked Iconium. Most of the province was overrun by the Turks after the </span>Battle of Manzikert<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in 1071, with Iconium becoming the seat of the </span>Seljuk Sultanate of Rum<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in the 12th century.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The last appearance of the Anatolic Theme in the historical sources is in 1077, when its </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">stratēgos</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikephoros_III_Botaneiates" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Nikephoros III Botaneiates">Nikephoros Botaneiates</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, proclaimed himself emperor (Nikephoros III, r. 1078–1081).</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Romans managed to recover some of the western and northern portions of the theme in the subsequent decades under the </span>Komnenian<span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"> emperors, but </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Anatolic Theme was never reconstituted.</u></b></span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6zMJvLgWra7y6JkdE8_H7MbhtZqBDLc85uYoYokwaitD-PbPjMDYoBubFJtcwpbyhCHcAJLLAxTABrzHa5BGHE6PzQFxcuAA2Uh-zcB-vxPi6Q0tZ3-IE1Iurb_Ldwa2lYH_rCB1FMPc/s860/11am.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="433" data-original-width="860" height="201" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6zMJvLgWra7y6JkdE8_H7MbhtZqBDLc85uYoYokwaitD-PbPjMDYoBubFJtcwpbyhCHcAJLLAxTABrzHa5BGHE6PzQFxcuAA2Uh-zcB-vxPi6Q0tZ3-IE1Iurb_Ldwa2lYH_rCB1FMPc/w400-h201/11am.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click to enlarge</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Amorium, capital of The Anatolic Theme</b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; text-align: left;">Artist's impression of the Roman Lower City at Amorium in ca. A.D. 800, showing the bathhouse and wine-making installations (by Tatiana Meltsem). © The Amorium Excavations Project. </span><a href="http://metmuseum.org/met-around-the-world/?page=10176" style="background-color: white; color: #2288bb; text-align: left; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">(metmuseum.org)</a></span></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Read More:</span></div></span><div><div style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/2016/04/zoroastrians-and-christians-vs-islam.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">The Siege and Sack of Amorium</span></a></div><p><br /></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Rebellions</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Because it faced the forces of the </span>Caliphate<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> during its first centuries of existence</span><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"> the Anatolic Theme was </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the most powerful and most prestigious of the themes.</u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Its very power, however, also meant that it was a potential threat to the Emperors.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">As early as 669 the thematic army revolted and forced </span>Constantine IV<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (r. 668–685) to re-install his brothers, </span>Heraclius<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and </span>Tiberius<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> as his co-emperors,</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> while in 695 a former </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">stratēgos</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, </span>Leontios<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (r. 695–698), usurped the throne from </span>Justinian II<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (r. 685–695, 705–711), and in 717 the then </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">stratēgos</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, </span>Leo the Isaurian<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, became emperor (Leo III, r. 717–741) after deposing </span>Theodosios III<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (r. 715–717).</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Anatolic Theme served as the base for several bids for the throne in later centuries as well: the failed revolt of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bardanes_Tourkos" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Bardanes Tourkos">Bardanes Tourkos</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in 803 was followed by the successful proclamation of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_V_the_Armenian" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V the Armenian</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (r. 813–820) by the Anatolic troops in 813, and the large-scale rebellion of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_the_Slav" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Thomas the Slav">Thomas the Slav</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in 820–823. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">In the 10th century, however, the theme appears on the sidelines of the rebellions of the period. The next and last rebellion by a </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">stratēgos</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> of the Anatolics was that of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikephoros_Xiphias" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Nikephoros Xiphias">Nikephoros Xiphias</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in 1022, against </span>Basil II<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (r. 976–1025).</span></span></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolic_Theme" target="_blank">(Anatolic)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorium" target="_blank">(Amorium)</a></p><p><br /></p></div>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-14468903928726349752021-08-12T17:29:00.000-07:002021-08-12T17:29:55.756-07:00Battle of Myriokephalon - Seljuks vs Romans (1176AD)<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMmZci1nc8OOYxpzg5YfkcjaYUWVlfcljjV1zSq7LbMmTSAbnmE4bJHyB0ybjAqEf3HNzvyYwjn3KE5f_2F9x7gzJn2zW0nYcexMBaOsotJXRWkTJZ75SK66XHefM57nhswCyqhPMwj_Y/s504/Byzantine6.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="336" data-original-width="504" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMmZci1nc8OOYxpzg5YfkcjaYUWVlfcljjV1zSq7LbMmTSAbnmE4bJHyB0ybjAqEf3HNzvyYwjn3KE5f_2F9x7gzJn2zW0nYcexMBaOsotJXRWkTJZ75SK66XHefM57nhswCyqhPMwj_Y/s16000/Byzantine6.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Late Roman / Eastern Empire dart throwing infantry.</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>While uniforms and armor varied over the centuries the basics changed very little.</b></span></div></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p style="text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">A Declining Roman Empire?</span></u></b></p><p style="text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Maybe Not.</span></u></b></p><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The Battle of Manzikert in 1071 has always been the point in time historians say marked the decline of the Eastern Roman Empire.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">But is that true?</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">The Roman Republic and Empire had recovered again and again from military defeats. In this article we see <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">over 100 years</u></b> after Manzikert that the Roman Army was still able to mount major campaigns against the Turks in Anatolia, in the Balkans, in Italy and in Egypt. The Romans held their lands and even expanded.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">In my view the "decline" of the Eastern Empire had a lot more to do with the treachery of the Crusaders in 1204 and their sack of Constantinople. The sack of the city happened only 28 years after this battle.</span></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Background</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Between 1158 and 1161 a series of Roman campaigns against the </span>Seljuk Turks<span style="background-color: white;"> of the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuk_Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="">Sultanate of Rûm</a><span style="background-color: white;"> resulted in a treaty favorable to the Empire, with the Sultan recognizing a form of subordination to the Roman Emperor.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Immediately after peace was negotiated the Seljuk sultan </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilij_Arslan_II" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Kilij Arslan II">Kilij Arslan II</a><span style="background-color: white;"> visited </span>Constantinople<span style="background-color: white;"> where he was treated by Emperor </span>Manuel I Komnenos<span style="background-color: white;"> as both an honored guest and an imperial vassal. Following the Sultan's visit there was no overt hostility between the two powers for many years.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u>BOTTOM LINE</u></b> - The Turks badly wanted to expand over to the coast, but they took one look at the Roman Army and declined to take action.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The Romans took advantage of this peace to expand their power.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Emperor Manuel I Komnenos </b></span></span><span style="background-color: white;">pursued an energetic and ambitious foreign policy. In the process he made alliances with </span>Pope Adrian IV<span style="background-color: white;"> and the resurgent </span>West<span style="background-color: white;">. He invaded the </span>Norman<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>Kingdom of Sicily<span style="background-color: white;">, although unsuccessfully, He was the last Eastern Roman emperor to attempt reconquests in the western </span>Mediterranean<span style="background-color: white;">. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In the East, the Emperor recovered </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilicia" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a><span style="background-color: white;"> from local Armenian dynasts and managed to reduce the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" title="Crusades">Crusader</a><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a><span style="background-color: white;"> to vassal status.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The passage of the potentially dangerous </span>Second Crusade<span style="background-color: white;"> through his empire was adroitly managed. Manuel </span>established a Roman protectorate<span style="background-color: white;"> over the </span>Crusader states<span style="background-color: white;">. Facing </span>Muslim<span style="background-color: white;"> advances in the </span>Holy Land<span style="background-color: white;">, he made common cause with the </span>Kingdom of Jerusalem<span style="background-color: white;"> and <a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/Egypt" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">participated in a combined invasion</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white;"> of </span>Fatimid<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>Egypt<span style="background-color: white;">. Manuel reshaped the political maps of the </span>Balkans<span style="background-color: white;"> and the eastern Mediterranean, placing the kingdoms of </span>Hungary<span style="background-color: white;"> and Outremer under Roman </span>hegemony<span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">While the Romans were rebuilding their power so were the Turks. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">K</span><span style="font-family: inherit;">ilij Arslan used this peaceful period to destroy the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmend" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Danishmend"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Danishmend</span></a> emirates of eastern Anatolia and also eject his brother Shahinshah from his lands near Ankara. Shahinshah, who was Manuel's vassal, and the Danishmend emirs fled to the protection of Rome. </span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">In 1175 the peace between the Empire and the Sultanate of Rûm fell apart when Kilij Arslan refused to hand over to the Romans, as he was obliged to do by treaty, a considerable proportion of the territory he had recently conquered from the Danishmends.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">Both side moved to a new war.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Strengthening the Economy</u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Here is a good spot to review the growing power of the Romans.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Former money changer </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_IV_the_Paphlagonian" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Michael IV the Paphlagonian">Michael IV the Paphlagonian</a><span style="background-color: white;"> (1034–41) assumed the throne in 1034 and began the slow process of </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">debasing the gold coins</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">. </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The debasement was gradual at first, but then accelerated rapidly. about 21 carats (87.5% pure) during the reign of Constantine IX (1042–1055), 18 carats (75%) under Constantine X (1059–1067), 16 carats (66.7%) under Romanus IV (1068–1071), 14 carats (58%) under Michael VII (1071–1078), 8 carats (33%) under Nicephorus III (1078–1081) and 0 to 8 carats during the first eleven years of the reign of Alexius I (1081–1118).</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Under </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexius_I_Comnenus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Alexius I Comnenus"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Alexius I Comnenus</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> (1081–1118) the debased solidus (</span><i style="background-color: white;">tetarteron</i><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><i style="background-color: white;">histamenon</i><span><span style="background-color: white;">) was discontinued and </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;"><span style="color: red;">new gold coinage</span> of higher fineness</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> (generally .900-.950) was established, commonly called the </span></span><i style="background-color: white;">hyperpyron</i><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Income to the Roman Treasury is a vital measurement of the strength of the state.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The exact amount of annual income the Roman government received, is a matter of considerable debate, due to the scantiness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. The following table contains approximate estimates.</span></p><table class="wikitable" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 1em 0px;"><tbody><tr><th style="background-color: #eaecf0; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em; text-align: center;">Year</th><th style="background-color: #eaecf0; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em; text-align: center;">Annual Revenue</th></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">305</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">9,400,000 <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidi" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Solidi"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">solidi</span></a>/42.3 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Tonne"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">tonnes</span></a> of gold</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">457</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">7,800,000 <i>solidi</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">518</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">8,500,000 <i>solidi</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">533</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">5,000,000 <i>solidi</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">540</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">11,300,000 <i>solidi/50.85 tonnes of gold</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">555</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">6,000,000 <i>solidi</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">565</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">8,500,000 <i>solidi</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">641</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">3,700,000 <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomismata" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Nomismata"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">nomismata</span></a></i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">668</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">2,000,000 <i>nomismata</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">775</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">1,800,000 <i>nomismata</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">775</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">2,000,000 <i>nomismata</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">842</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">3,100,000 <i>nomismata</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">850</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">3,300,000 <i>nomismata</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">959</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">4,000,000 <i>nomismata</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">1025</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">5,900,000 <i>nomismata</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">1150</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">5,600,000 <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperpyra" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Hyperpyra"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">hyperpyra</span></a></i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">1303</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">1,800,000 <i>hyperpyra</i></td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">1321</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">1,000,000 <i>hyperpyra</i></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi57ZC1sqyUDeu9eJoe75CQ57wyrRDUrovHvX9jCwtY6so9SmkeHXyeOVuVneRe6BQWRlxwqM39VHJLk78-HoHgWthLUgtMaAt08gqsHKBI09iQhFWiLUVrgOH3S-ZRXPt-TCIyBw1F5a0/s2046/11South-eastern_Europe_c._1180.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1612" data-original-width="2046" height="315" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi57ZC1sqyUDeu9eJoe75CQ57wyrRDUrovHvX9jCwtY6so9SmkeHXyeOVuVneRe6BQWRlxwqM39VHJLk78-HoHgWthLUgtMaAt08gqsHKBI09iQhFWiLUVrgOH3S-ZRXPt-TCIyBw1F5a0/w400-h315/11South-eastern_Europe_c._1180.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click to enlarge map</span></b></div><span style="color: white;">.</span><div><div style="text-align: center;"><b style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">A map of the Roman Empire showing the location of Myriokephalon.</b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b><br /></b></span></div><br /><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">The Empire Was <span style="color: red;">NOT</span> in Decline</span></u></b><p></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">With 20-20 hindsight historians jump on the decline of the Empire side.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">To me three factors show the Empire was not in decline: </span></p><p></p><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-size: medium;">The improved Roman political and military position in the Balkans and in the East; </span></li><li><span style="font-size: medium;">The improved value of the nation's gold coins; </span></li><li><span style="font-size: medium;">And the steady growth since 775 AD on (above chart) tax income to the treasury.</span></li></ol><p></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">Yes there were problems, but when did problems not exist for any nation?</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;">While not at a peak of power it is fair to say the Empire had recovered from Manzikert and was growing its power.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4x6ne31dXGshyLeTZDgqFs-qfxMU-XpIoeoCrBwxv3-gNOTpl0UPdzDn6-ZY5rSpDe0BqKU3G3-xXa2V4_0aMIZjVSTRCw5z0_anbfhjJU6mKeLmoysh6fPEjbZRee3SJiTQCz0aURhk/s676/11mamluk.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="676" data-original-width="507" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4x6ne31dXGshyLeTZDgqFs-qfxMU-XpIoeoCrBwxv3-gNOTpl0UPdzDn6-ZY5rSpDe0BqKU3G3-xXa2V4_0aMIZjVSTRCw5z0_anbfhjJU6mKeLmoysh6fPEjbZRee3SJiTQCz0aURhk/s16000/11mamluk.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: 600; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><u>A Mamluk soldier by Carle Vernet, 1822.</u></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Mamluk</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> translated as "one who is owned",</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> meaning "</span>slave<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">",</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">is a term most commonly referring to non-Arab, ethnically diverse Muslim</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave-soldier" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Slave-soldier">slave-soldiers</a><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> and </span>freed slaves<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> to which were assigned military and administrative duties.</span></b></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><br /></div></div><div><br /></div><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">The Roman Army</span></u></b><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">All sources agree that the Emperor gathered an exceptionally large army to teach the Turks a lesson.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">One historian puts </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Manuel's army at around 35,000 men.</u></b><span style="background-color: white; white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">The number is derived from the fact that sources indicated a supply train of 3,000 wagons accompanied the army, which was enough to support 30,000–40,000 men.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The army may have contained 25,000 Roman troops with the remainder composed of an allied contingent of Hungarians sent by Manuel's kinsman </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9la_III_of_Hungary" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Béla III of Hungary"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Béla III of Hungary</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> and tributary forces supplied by the Principality of Antioch and Serbia.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">The main division of the army consisted of the eastern and western <a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/Army%20-%20Imperial%20Tagmata%20Regiments%20-%20The%20Central%20Reserve" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Imperial Tagmata Regiments</span></a>. The vanguard was mostly infantry with some cavalry units. T</span></span><span style="background-color: white;">he right wing was largely composed of Westerners led by </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin_of_Antioch" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Seljuk Empire">Baldwin of Antioch</a><span style="background-color: white;"> (Manuel's brother-in-law). </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">T</span><span style="background-color: white;">hen we have baggage and siege trains. The Roman left wing, led by </span>Theodore Mavrozomes<span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kantakouzenos_(sebastos)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="John Kantakouzenos (sebastos)"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">John Kantakouzenos</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">; then comes the Emperor and his picked troops; and finally the rear division under the experienced general </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronikos_Kontostephanos" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); outline-color: rgb(51, 102, 204);" target="_blank" title="Andronikos Kontostephanos"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Andronikos Kontostephanos</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>The Seljuk Army</u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Modern historians have estimated that the various Seljuk successor states (such as the Sultanate of Rum) could field at most </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">10,000–15,000 Turks.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">This is likely a closer estimate for the possible Seljuk strength at Myriokephalon considering the much larger and united </span>Seljuk Empire<span style="background-color: white;"> fielded around 20,000–30,000 men at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">The Sultanate of Rum was much smaller territorially than the Seljuk Empire and probably had smaller armies, for example, its army at the Battle of Dorylaeum in 1097 has been estimated at between 6,000–8,000 men.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Seljuk army consisted of two main sections: the </span><i style="background-color: white;">askar</i><span style="background-color: white;">s of the sultan and of each of his emirs, and an irregular force of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" style="background: none white; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turkoman</a><span style="background-color: white;"> tribesmen. The </span><i style="background-color: white;">askari</i><span style="background-color: white;"> (Arabic for 'soldier') was a full-time soldier, often a </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">mamluk, a type of slave-soldier</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> though this form of nominal slavery was not servile. </span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">They were supported by payments in cash or though a semi-feudal system of grants, called <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iqta%27" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Iqta'"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">iqta'</span></a></i>. These troops formed the core of field armies and were medium to heavy cavalry; they were armored, and fought in coherent units with bow and lance. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">In contrast, the Turkoman tribesmen were semi-nomadic irregular horsemen, who served under their own chieftains. They lived off their herds and served the sultan on the promise of plunder, the ransom of prisoners, for one-off payments, or if their pasturelands were threatened. These tribesmen were unreliable as soldiers, but were numerous, and were effective as light mounted archers, adept at skirmish tactics.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8PkviKZLiBVXYjCVJiNTD7uEronx1cqV-7bASwfq2w1-AUnVeIEh3wvdMdVD2QHdoN-Ylob-S9BdTYMH3WHzv-qFVpUvsB5uT-p4DnkMvn_rsusXWH1l8LWNWy2-P2kvEHqhuefPtkxM/s500/11battle1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="287" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8PkviKZLiBVXYjCVJiNTD7uEronx1cqV-7bASwfq2w1-AUnVeIEh3wvdMdVD2QHdoN-Ylob-S9BdTYMH3WHzv-qFVpUvsB5uT-p4DnkMvn_rsusXWH1l8LWNWy2-P2kvEHqhuefPtkxM/s16000/11battle1.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgiNqT26eD_6gGz3Xheif-vVn6ePQWjEhw7r-H74mStbxBt9b3tv84HAMu_JSJHqp-3HePCn28GbNWM-8WJD3-ANyp6fVQtri1VAj8RTPJPhuzhkG_u1nvhNQHGFptuZJkmwOE0CR9_kXw/s500/11battle2.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="494" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgiNqT26eD_6gGz3Xheif-vVn6ePQWjEhw7r-H74mStbxBt9b3tv84HAMu_JSJHqp-3HePCn28GbNWM-8WJD3-ANyp6fVQtri1VAj8RTPJPhuzhkG_u1nvhNQHGFptuZJkmwOE0CR9_kXw/s16000/11battle2.PNG" /></a></div><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>The Battle - September 17, 1176</u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif">The Emperor assembled the full Imperial army and marched against the Seljuk capital of </span>Iconium.<span face="sans-serif"> Manuel's strategy was to prepare the advanced bases of<span style="color: #2b00fe;"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorylaeum" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Dorylaeum"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Dorylaeum</span></a><span face="sans-serif"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ke%C3%A7iborlu" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Keçiborlu"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Sublaeum</span></a><span face="sans-serif">, and then to use them to strike as quickly as possible at Iconium.</span></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The battle took place near <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Bey%C5%9Fehir" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Lake Beyşehir.</span></a></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">Speed may have been the goal, but </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">Manuel's army of 35,000 men was large and unwieldy. According to a letter that Manuel sent to King </span>Henry II of England<span face="sans-serif"><span style="background-color: white;">, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the advancing column was ten miles long.</u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Turks destroyed crops and poisoned water supplies to make Manuel's march more difficult. King Arslan harassed the Roman army in order to force it into the Meander valley, and specifically the mountain pass of Tzivritze near the fortress of Myriokephalon.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u>IMPORTANT</u></b> - Just outside the entrance to the pass at Myriokephalon, Manuel was met by Turkish ambassadors, who offered peace on generous terms. The Sultan saw a Roman army perhaps three times the size of his own force and offered peace.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The mistake came from the Roman leadership. Most of Manuel's generals and experienced courtiers urged him to accept the offer. The younger and more aggressive members of the court urged Manuel to attack, however, and he took their advice and continued his advance into a narrow pass.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The lack of forage, and water for his troops, and the fact that dysentery had broken out in his army may have induced Manuel to decide to force the pass regardless of the danger of ambush.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Manuel made serious tactical errors</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, such as failing to properly scout out the route ahead. These failings caused him to lead his forces straight into a classic ambush.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLI_9odVyujVNMQkY1ejdDy137m8mUmG5R5lYTMqbfrwgxYVD41p4fRg1uWBXVWnYSd7h6mMSh70BYUXziGNrx3-fva9XvU8TsT3C9QTeW5eVjqVOpPkBh3v-avlN3zWt6jQ8YimrrQh8/s706/11Manuel1_Marie.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="706" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLI_9odVyujVNMQkY1ejdDy137m8mUmG5R5lYTMqbfrwgxYVD41p4fRg1uWBXVWnYSd7h6mMSh70BYUXziGNrx3-fva9XvU8TsT3C9QTeW5eVjqVOpPkBh3v-avlN3zWt6jQ8YimrrQh8/s16000/11Manuel1_Marie.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; text-align: left;"><b>Maria of Antioch with Emperor Manuel I Komnenos</b></span></span></div><br /><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In this matter the Emperor, at a minimum, acted foolishly to pass up a peace proposal and acted recklessly to <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">march a 10 mile long army column into a narrow pass</u></b> that was not properly scouted.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Roman vanguard was the first to encounter King Arslan's troops. They went through the pass with few casualties, as did the main division. Possibly the Turks had not yet fully deployed in their positions.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Roman divisions sent their infantry up onto the slopes to dislodge the Seljuk soldiers, who were forced to withdraw to higher ground. The following divisions did not take this precaution, also they were negligent in not maintaining a defensive formation of closed ranks and they did not deploy their archers effectively.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">By the time the first two Roman divisions exited the far end of the pass, the rear was just about to enter; this allowed the Turks to close their trap on those divisions still within the pass.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Turkish attack, descending from the heights, fell especially heavily on the Roman right wing. This division seems to have quickly lost cohesion and been broken, soldiers fleeing one ambush often running into another. Heavy casualties were sustained by the right-wing and its commander, Baldwin, was killed.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Turks then concentrated their attacks on the baggage and siege trains, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">shooting down the draught animals and choking the roadway.</u></b></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The left-wing division also suffered significant casualties and one of its leaders, John Kantakouzenos, was slain when fighting alone against a band of Seljuk soldiers.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The remaining Roman troops were panicked by the carnage in front of them and the realization that the Turks had also begun to attack their rear. The sudden descent of a blinding dust-storm did nothing to improve the morale or organization of the Roman forces, though it must have confused the Seljuk troops also.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">At this point, Manuel seems to have suffered a crisis of confidence and reputedly sat down, passively awaiting his fate and that of his army.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Emperor was eventually roused by his officers, re-established discipline and organized his forces into a defensive formation; when formed up, they pushed their way past the wreck of the baggage and out of the pass.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Debouching from the pass they rejoined the unscathed van and main divisions, commanded by John and Andronikos Angelos, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Makrodoukas" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Constantine Makrodoukas">Constantine Makrodoukas</a><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronikos_Lampardas" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Andronikos Lampardas">Andronikos Lampardas</a><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">. Whilst the rest of the army had been under attack in the pass the troops of the van and main divisions had </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">constructed a fortified encampment</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">. The rear division, under Andronikos Kontostephanos, arrived at the camp somewhat later than the emperor, having suffered few casualties.</span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The night was spent in successfully repulsing further attacks by Seljuk mounted archers.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span>Niketas Choniates<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> states that Manuel considered abandoning his troops but was shamed into staying by the scathing words of an anonymous soldier and the disapproval of a shocked Kontostephanos.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> However, this would appear to be hyperbole on the historian's part as Manuel would have placed himself in much greater danger by flight than if he remained in the midst of his army. </span></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The following day, the Turks circled the camp firing arrows; Manuel ordered two counterattacks, led by John Angelos and Constantine Makrodoukas respectively, but there was no renewal of a general action.</span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoA_rwG1-RM4Hj_54Qc3s2RYtLdIcC9I3cXF9d03HsW8EnKzJoByVg9Zl-q8is_uLENTpfTNT4p0lHNN_rwR7eha5PklMVIauzig8o_3hc0QY9L7rTsO_HJEXeXKGs8V46dMyZK5Dy7eo/s501/Byzantine+reenactors.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="376" data-original-width="501" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoA_rwG1-RM4Hj_54Qc3s2RYtLdIcC9I3cXF9d03HsW8EnKzJoByVg9Zl-q8is_uLENTpfTNT4p0lHNN_rwR7eha5PklMVIauzig8o_3hc0QY9L7rTsO_HJEXeXKGs8V46dMyZK5Dy7eo/s16000/Byzantine+reenactors.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Eastern Empire reenactors. The headwear shows the </b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>influence of the Arabs they fought for centuries.</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/497014508850426607/" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">(pinterest.com)</span></a><br /></div><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span><p></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Outcome</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">The Roman siege equipment had been quickly destroyed, and Manuel was forced to withdraw – without </span>siege engines<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">, the conquest of Iconium was now impossible.</span></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Both sides had suffered casualties, though their extent is difficult to quantify. Modern historians have postulated that about half of the Roman army was engaged and around half of those became casualties.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">As the Roman army moved back through the pass after the battle it was seen that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the dead had been scalped and their genitals mutilated</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, "It was said that the Turks took these measures so that the circumcised could not be distinguished from the uncircumcised and the victory therefore disputed and contested since many had fallen on both sides."</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;">Also the Seljuk Sultan was keen for peace to be restored as soon as possible; he sent an envoy named Gabras, together with gifts of a Nisaean warhorse and a sword, to Manuel in order to negotiate a truce.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> As a result of these negotiations, the Roman army was to be allowed to retreat unmolested on condition that Manuel destroy his forts and evacuate the garrisons at </span>Dorylaeum<span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> and Sublaeum in the Roman-Seljuk borderlands.</span></span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">However, despite Kilij Arslan's protestations of good faith, the retreat of the Roman army was harassed by the attacks of Turkoman tribesmen. This, taken with an earlier failure by the sultan to keep his side of a treaty signed in 1162, gave Manuel an excuse to avoid observing the terms of this new arrangement in their entirety. He therefore demolished the fortifications of the less important fortress of Sublaeum but left Dorylaeum intact.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The defeat at Myriokephalon has often been depicted as a catastrophe in which the entire Roman army was destroyed. Manuel himself compared the defeat to Manzikert.</span></p><p><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In reality, although a defeat, it was not too costly and did not significantly diminish the Roman army. Most of the casualties were borne by the right wing, largely composed of allied troops commanded by Baldwin of Antioch, and also by the baggage train, which was the main target of the Turkish ambush.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In a message to Constantinople the Emperor</span><span style="background-color: white;">: "Then extolled the treaties made with the sultan, boasting that these had been concluded beneath his own banner which had waved in the wind in view of the enemy's front line so that trembling and fear fell upon them."</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is notable that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">it was the sultan who initiated peace proposals</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> by sending an envoy to Manuel and not the reverse. The conclusion that Kilij Arslan, though negotiating from a position of strength, did not consider that his forces were capable of destroying the Roman army is inescapable. A possible reason for Kilij Arslan's reluctance to renew the battle is that a large proportion of his irregular troops may have been far more interested in securing the plunder they had taken than in continuing the fight, thus leaving his army seriously weakened.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The limited losses inflicted on native Roman troops were quickly recovered, and in the following year Manuel's forces defeated a force of "picked Turks".</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Komnenos_Vatatzes" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="John Komnenos Vatatzes">John Komnenos Vatatzes</a><span style="background-color: white;">, who was sent by the Emperor to repel the Turkish invasion, not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way. Vatatzes caught the Turks in an ambush as they were crossing the </span>Meander River<span style="background-color: white;">; the subsequent </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hyelion_and_Leimocheir" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> effectively destroyed them as a fighting force. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">This is an indication that </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Roman army remained strong</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> and that the defensive program of western </span>Asia Minor<span style="background-color: white;"> was still successful.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> After the victory on the Meander, Manuel himself advanced with a small army to drive the Turks from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banaz" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Banaz">Panasium</a><span style="background-color: white;">, south of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotyaeum" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Cotyaeum">Cotyaeum</a><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Manuel continued to meet the Seljuks in smaller battles with some success, and concluded a probably advantageous peace with Kilij Arslan in 1179.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> However, like Manzikert, Myriokephalon was a pivotal event and following it the balance between the two powers in Anatolia gradually began to shift, and subsequently, the Eastern Empire was unable to compete for dominance of the Anatolian interior.</span></span></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtKx-uzv06zp5WPbsT26bUxaJB8Fq1xUwvTv3INGhWhPaklei-zAHXR3S1yxS0oDySsak8c8whGp_sM1LF17Ai5dYJJbhDQoAmi97h501edGH7MEQHEMYhmhC7RHkS2JDYp4aoB38d0Ms/s501/11battle3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="346" data-original-width="501" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtKx-uzv06zp5WPbsT26bUxaJB8Fq1xUwvTv3INGhWhPaklei-zAHXR3S1yxS0oDySsak8c8whGp_sM1LF17Ai5dYJJbhDQoAmi97h501edGH7MEQHEMYhmhC7RHkS2JDYp4aoB38d0Ms/s16000/11battle3.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipLV1w4DJXdm8fbJS6fi2qd6mtoSUv2MTbJkkDhpM8wP_Soz34DjHeuTHA9-VEMpD1P46H0SQihqPkM5CTfclSlhwJtTSA4yXONObNQZw6H9y_wkbIDzlHVuqZF_FTnvlNxtNK7CD963A/s500/11battle4.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="451" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipLV1w4DJXdm8fbJS6fi2qd6mtoSUv2MTbJkkDhpM8wP_Soz34DjHeuTHA9-VEMpD1P46H0SQihqPkM5CTfclSlhwJtTSA4yXONObNQZw6H9y_wkbIDzlHVuqZF_FTnvlNxtNK7CD963A/s16000/11battle4.PNG" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWDIE3zXNBOCDz4WeBTKGKERpkxhYJBlrMrlgsVqhSl5kYDk39LIBm51d1wlpq75aW0TiEBWj4fXLm3mcSrY7UqnfwlX7UNz-jU3sQKFrSNfLwzG6aecPjad3WKmXwjUc4nUIe3GuXngM/s634/11battle6.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="634" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWDIE3zXNBOCDz4WeBTKGKERpkxhYJBlrMrlgsVqhSl5kYDk39LIBm51d1wlpq75aW0TiEBWj4fXLm3mcSrY7UqnfwlX7UNz-jU3sQKFrSNfLwzG6aecPjad3WKmXwjUc4nUIe3GuXngM/s16000/11battle6.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; text-align: left;">This image by </span>Gustave Doré<span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; text-align: left;"> shows the Turkish ambush at the pass of Myriokephalon. This ambush destroyed Manuel's hope of capturing Konya.</span></b></span></div><br /><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCFDVAXMtZbmDAfMCKfP_MCf5XUrOoPkEeywBMin3OEvK_mXxgRQLArTqrzbHXFMiYTqu8i2G71REifYBu5LfLOVcBQ9PCVVceQz88LQf0AkatoV770tgjnoeSl0nUUWeIK4ZM1xVplgw/s800/11Selcuk-Empire.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="530" data-original-width="800" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCFDVAXMtZbmDAfMCKfP_MCf5XUrOoPkEeywBMin3OEvK_mXxgRQLArTqrzbHXFMiYTqu8i2G71REifYBu5LfLOVcBQ9PCVVceQz88LQf0AkatoV770tgjnoeSl0nUUWeIK4ZM1xVplgw/w400-h265/11Selcuk-Empire.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click to enlarge map</span></b></div><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" target="_blank">(Manuel I Komnenos)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_economy" target="_blank">(Byzantine economy)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" target="_blank">(Byzantine coinage)</a><br /></p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Myriokephalon" target="_blank">(Myriokephalon)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk" target="_blank">(Mamluk)</a><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKaB8K0M2KwNvjN53Y_HdH1SEsw8K0XVbIsEaUx1Vrglhn-jM3SRuRn894bjhtcK-fRHXqJU3G0JHqJoyrbs4mwsyuGnuq_gaCrfhFgMtAggM7E4NkyivNo7c6blGL3mx_y_9QDxudqdw/s720/11Byzantine+soldier+6.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="485" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKaB8K0M2KwNvjN53Y_HdH1SEsw8K0XVbIsEaUx1Vrglhn-jM3SRuRn894bjhtcK-fRHXqJU3G0JHqJoyrbs4mwsyuGnuq_gaCrfhFgMtAggM7E4NkyivNo7c6blGL3mx_y_9QDxudqdw/s16000/11Byzantine+soldier+6.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">Read More:</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/2017/12/the-decline-of-roman-army-before.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: large;">The Decline of the Roman Army before Manzikert</span></a><br /></div><p><br /></p></div>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-57176799823809455942021-07-19T16:47:00.000-07:002021-07-19T16:47:06.573-07:00Gold Coin Hoard Pinpoints Persian Destruction of Jerusalem<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEm8Mf1Je4OVB8QXuhvIR9e-0IJ_ND-9cTZUaSZGjQM1scOE4iCqv8G-t2ADNCC0RLZ3IHs6XqL2UIje75wgzbgbzXalAUbd6-twPYejE1tnYMeYPcjl3CK9ZVZBjfRH3fZXOEiXTTCOQ/s494/11coin4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="262" data-original-width="494" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEm8Mf1Je4OVB8QXuhvIR9e-0IJ_ND-9cTZUaSZGjQM1scOE4iCqv8G-t2ADNCC0RLZ3IHs6XqL2UIje75wgzbgbzXalAUbd6-twPYejE1tnYMeYPcjl3CK9ZVZBjfRH3fZXOEiXTTCOQ/s16000/11coin4.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Photo 3. One of the Heraclius gold solidi from the Givati parking lot. Photo by Clara Amit of the IAA.</span></span></div><br /><p><br /></p><div class="c1" style="background-color: white; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">"The use of coins welds together our whole life, and is the basis of all our transactions. Whenever anything is to be bought or sold, we do it all through coins."</span></div><div class="c2" style="background-color: white; text-align: right;"><div style="text-align: center;"><strong><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">John Chrysostom</span></strong></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Archbishop of Constantinople</span></div></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Coin Week) If a hoard of 264 Byzantine gold </span><em style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">solidi</em><span style="background-color: white;"> suddenly appeared and careful examination showed that every coin in the hoard was struck from the SAME dies–a die set never before identified–experts would be quick to suggest the possibility of forgery. (Photo 1)</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbz6yh3OOEuk5K0s-VQPxNujEOy03tXtYWtHCCXwnRJThrU0Z3DMWdu2oOEu6NAVMJTZy5iYAvwL14AauUeY2W48yBvfvS27fUtNa1TBOiL0cIa91QDjqP6mDw9tpkYL7SjTJA2puIjn8/s499/11coin2.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="499" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbz6yh3OOEuk5K0s-VQPxNujEOy03tXtYWtHCCXwnRJThrU0Z3DMWdu2oOEu6NAVMJTZy5iYAvwL14AauUeY2W48yBvfvS27fUtNa1TBOiL0cIa91QDjqP6mDw9tpkYL7SjTJA2puIjn8/s16000/11coin2.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Photo 1: The Givati parking lot gold hoard in situ. Photo Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA).</span></span></div><br /><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Real life, however, can be stranger than fiction.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">One of the great numismatic stories of the last 50 years revolves around just such a hoard of coins that was excavated a dozen years ago at the </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Givati</span><span style="background-color: white;"> parking lot in </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Jerusalem</span><span style="background-color: white;">. The lot is just outside of the Old City’s </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Dung Gate</span><span style="background-color: white;">, on the north-western side of the </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">City of David</span><span style="background-color: white;"> excavations. The latest report on this hoard was published in an article by my long-time friend </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Gabriella Bijovsky</span><span style="background-color: white;">, a senior numismatist at the </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Israel Antiquity Authority</span><span style="background-color: white;">. (</span><em style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">IAA Reports</em><span style="background-color: white;"> 66, 2020, Chapter 5, “A Hoard of Solidi of Heraclius.”)</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The coins were found in the remains of a large Byzantine building. Their location within the building suggested that they “were originally arranged in rows, and were most likely wrapped in a cloth or in a purse, which was not preserved. The excavators suggest that the coins were stored on a shelf…”</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">At the time these coins were discovered, they received quite a lot of publicity. But the story behind the story, which is quite remarkable, is summarized by Bijovsky, who was responsible for studying the coins.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">There were 264 gold solidi with the portrait of </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Heraclius</span><span style="background-color: white;"> in the Givati hoard. Heraclius ruled the </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">East Roman Empire</span><span><span style="background-color: white;"> from 610 to 641 CE. None of the coins are clipped, carry graffiti, or have any other significant signs of use. At first look, the coins all appear to be from the early Heraclius solidi series struck from 610 through 613. In fact, however, they are more </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">likely <span style="font-family: inherit;">p</span></u></b></span></span><span face="Verdana, Geneva, sans-serif" style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">art of an emergency issue struck at a Jerusalem mint</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, Bijovsky explains. (Photo 2)</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikDmtNyLY8cIg9pLixMUHoDpB5WyCShAiJUQzW9D2jbTvgUKSa2Bib66RrOpdL0yYJNn-u0mKlaGkRBLKaLtJDarLc0Az6ohBuQB2no2LqdjBg4lkx-L2eV_PbiS_s1vWnbYMd0bdcrPQ/s499/11coin3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="346" data-original-width="499" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikDmtNyLY8cIg9pLixMUHoDpB5WyCShAiJUQzW9D2jbTvgUKSa2Bib66RrOpdL0yYJNn-u0mKlaGkRBLKaLtJDarLc0Az6ohBuQB2no2LqdjBg4lkx-L2eV_PbiS_s1vWnbYMd0bdcrPQ/s16000/11coin3.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Photo 2. The Givati hoard after cleaning at the laboratories of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Photo by Clara Amit of the IAA.</span></span></div><br /><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Givati hoard coins are an unpublished variant of the 610-613 series. The obverse legend is </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">dNAERACLI-ЧS. PP AVC•</span><span style="background-color: white;"> with an </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">A</span><span style="background-color: white;"> instead of the usual </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">h</span><span style="background-color: white;"> and a small dot after the “S” of Heraclius.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">“The last letter C of the obverse legend is inclined and is followed by a small dot to its right. A short, curved stroke of dots is visible on the upper left side of the emperor’s crown. The reverse inscription ends with the letter </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Δ</span><span style="background-color: white;">, unknown in the original series (Grierson 1959:145), and a tiny star is attached to the exergue inscription: </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">CONOB*</span><span style="background-color: white;">.” (Photo 3)</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Bijovsky concludes that all of the coins were produced by the same pair of dies. The gold content of 41 of the solidi was studied using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) at the </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Weitzman Institute of Science</span><span style="background-color: white;">. “The results showed a uniform composition deviation, clearly indicating that all the coins were produced from the same load of gold.” Hence, the minting process for this group was “a single event.”</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">On first glance, Bijovsky explains, “the mintmark, fabric, and style of these coins seem to suggest that this series was issued by the imperial mint of </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Constantinople</span><span style="background-color: white;">. Indeed, the style of the bust die appears standard to this mint and is even better executed than many other official dies of the same general type.”</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-PCkP1sq_tJ91OG8Hht-SF7JMyctAQr_zMD60LpFdC0wmcRTs4dgS4fzhZBtMZeEWgCG96yHghFPxCmSsVXi6gSR3jefaWi4iriQ4esLMpofG7AXFKl-R2ImgfK4VuNJ0K7VujqmLEUI/s499/11mints.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="319" data-original-width="499" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-PCkP1sq_tJ91OG8Hht-SF7JMyctAQr_zMD60LpFdC0wmcRTs4dgS4fzhZBtMZeEWgCG96yHghFPxCmSsVXi6gSR3jefaWi4iriQ4esLMpofG7AXFKl-R2ImgfK4VuNJ0K7VujqmLEUI/s16000/11mints.PNG" /></a></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;">In the late Roman period, coins were minted in a number of cities, mainly because of the danger and cost of moving large quantities of precious metal from place to place. This system was inherited by Byzantium, and in the 6</span><sup style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;">th</sup><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"> century there were six mints in the Eastern Empire (Constantinople, Nicomedia, Cyzicus, Antioch [Theoupolis], Alexandria and Thessalonica) and three in the Western provinces that Justinian had reconquered from the Vandals and the Ostrogoths (Carthage, Rome and Ravenna).</span><br style="background-color: white;" /></i></span></span></div><p></p><div style="background-color: white; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><i>Gold coins were minted mainly in the capital and consequently have the mint mark <strong>CON</strong> (for Constantinople), with <strong>OB</strong> added on the solidi to show that they were minted of pure gold.</i></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">“On the other hand, the obverse inscription of our solidi showing the name </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">AERACLIVS</span><span><span style="background-color: white;"> seems to be a misspelling based on Latin phonetics. Is this an indication about the origin of the die engraver? Still, it seems very improbable that a state official in Constantinople would write incorrectly the name of the emperor on a gold coin,” Bijovsky says. Thus, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">these coins are more likely a ‘provincial’ issue</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Even though all of the Givati hoard solidi coins appear to be uncirculated, there is an unusual variance of the standard weight (4.55 g for the Byzantine solidus during this period) from as light as 3.97 g to 4.69 g.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">“It is hard to believe that the official mint of Constantinople would have tolerated imperial solidi being officially struck without control of an accurate weight standard,” Bijovsky writes. She also asks, “Who would be interested in striking gold coins that contain more precious metal than required by the standard?”</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Bijovsky further cites </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Michael Hendy</span><span style="background-color: white;">, and points out that “hoards characterized by heavy concentrations of coins struck from the same pair, or from a limited number of dies, or that contain coins from a single </span><em style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">officina</em><span style="background-color: white;">, ‘probably tend to have derived at no great distance from bodies of coins dispatched from the mint in purses.’”</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">The Givati hoard is singularly homogeneous, and Bijovsky concludes that “during this time (608-615 CE), and especially after the capture of Antioch by the Persians in 611 and until 613, the presence of </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a Byzantine military garrison in Jerusalem could explain the operation of a temporary mint in order to pay the troops and emphasize Byzantine sovereignty over the city</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">… Given the fact that all </span></span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Antioch</span><span style="background-color: white;"> surrendered to the </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Persians</span><span style="background-color: white;"> in 610, </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Emesa</span><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Apamea</span><span style="background-color: white;"> in 611, and </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Damascus</span><span style="background-color: white;"> in 613, Jerusalem remained the only major Byzantine stronghold in the region capable of coin production.”</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Archaeological remains associated with the Persian conquest are quite sparse in Jerusalem. The archaeologists believe that the Givati hoard is correctly identified as an ‘emergency’ hoard that was “concealed during times of imminent danger, siege, or war. These hoards usually reflect the coinage in current circulation at the time of their deposition.”</span></span></p><p><span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">This hoard is all the more remarkable because it </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">“proves the need for an emergency coinage, a new series of Heraclian solidi</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> which has been exceptionally struck in Jerusalem under hasty conditions… the combination of both numismatic features and historical circumstances provides solid evidence for the existence of a temporary mint in Jerusalem that functioned during the first years of the reign of Heraclius.”</span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Givati parking lot excavations “have shed new light upon Jerusalem at the close of the Byzantine period. The Persian conquest of </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Palestine</span><span style="background-color: white;"> in 614 CE, one of the dramatic events that mark the ‘beginning of the end’ of the Byzantine domination in Palestine in the early seventh century seems to be well reflected in the archaeological record at this site,” Bijovsky explains.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Before the discovery of the Givati coin hoard, there were very few coin finds in Jerusalem from during the time of the Persian conquest. Seven mass burials have been discovered around Jerusalem and are generally believed to be from the Persian devastation of the city in 614. According to historic sources, the Persian conquest cost many lives and caused great damage. The conquest and the subsequent 14 Sassanid rulers left few other significant remains. It appears that the large Byzantine building in the Givati parking lot was deliberately destroyed during the Persian invasion of Jerusalem and, unlike the city’s other damaged but surviving buildings, including churches, it was never rebuilt or repaired.</span></span></p><p><span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Summing up, Bijovsky notes that “the Givati hoard presents several features that tell us quite explicitly the story of its concealment. The uniform date and the character of the hoard reveal that it was </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">an ‘emergency hoard’ concealed at a time of imminent danger, siege, or war.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> Such hoards usually reflect the coinage in circulation at the time of their deposition.”</span></span></span></p><p><a href="https://coinweek.com/ancient-coins/ancient-gold-coin-hoard-pinpoints-persian-destruction-of-jerusalem/" target="_blank">(Coinweek.com)</a><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgj6hyphenhyphenVEirm33j8kx-_TrlhfrsxfLAHwJ5x_EI8zqZCSUsXjNplMneG0ou2orXydcmTdmvhKXS1XSShtgwVUpOIZ5hGgWV46bHdtPaMNzZGEzm6objQC9ul3nOwEqYD0aFYUsfhampe-Xg/s500/11Romanus_I_with_Christopher%252C_solidus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="247" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgj6hyphenhyphenVEirm33j8kx-_TrlhfrsxfLAHwJ5x_EI8zqZCSUsXjNplMneG0ou2orXydcmTdmvhKXS1XSShtgwVUpOIZ5hGgWV46bHdtPaMNzZGEzm6objQC9ul3nOwEqYD0aFYUsfhampe-Xg/s16000/11Romanus_I_with_Christopher%252C_solidus.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.3186px; text-align: left;">Gold </span><i style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.3186px; text-align: left;">solidus</i><span style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.3186px; text-align: left;"> of Romanos I with his eldest son, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Lekapenos" style="background: none rgb(249, 249, 249); line-height: 17.3186px; text-align: left; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Christopher Lekapenos"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Christopher Lekapenos</span></a><span style="color: #222222;">. </span></span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanos_I_Lekapenos" style="text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Romanos I Lekapenos</span></a></span><span style="color: #252525; line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;">, </span><span style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;">was an </span><span style="color: #222222;">Armenian</span><span style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;"> who became a Roman</span><span style="color: #222222;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;">naval commander and reigned as</span><span style="color: #222222;"> Emperor</span><span style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;"> from 920 until his deposition on December 16, 944.</span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;">.</span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;">Read More:</span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;"><a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/Economy%20-%20Byzantine%20Gold%20Silver%20and%20Copper%20Coins" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: x-large;">Byzantine Gold Coins - Making the World Go Around Since 395 AD</span></a><br /></span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #222222; line-height: 17.92px; text-align: start;"><br /></span></span></span></div><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-26962923893527324472021-07-04T10:31:00.000-07:002021-07-04T10:31:00.658-07:00Column of Phocas<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcAz7fYNE2j50A9WxBe8QgF6TccuL60uHTm-xGCiyIwOijKT1uU6OvnWkotTJkm-UmZNhyyROqJvOdQPvA2kdPNHZXeFHTv1Af8Ww0a99Q2nvR7tlfwj9BHDcEWOQbSxEYsi9KRFSNr_A/s1068/11column.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1068" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcAz7fYNE2j50A9WxBe8QgF6TccuL60uHTm-xGCiyIwOijKT1uU6OvnWkotTJkm-UmZNhyyROqJvOdQPvA2kdPNHZXeFHTv1Af8Ww0a99Q2nvR7tlfwj9BHDcEWOQbSxEYsi9KRFSNr_A/s16000/11column.jpg" /></a></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The </span><b style="background-color: white;">Column of Phocas</b><span style="background-color: white;"> is a </span>Roman monumental column<span style="background-color: white;"> in the </span>Roman Forum<span style="background-color: white;"> of </span>Rome<span style="background-color: white;">, </span>Italy<span style="background-color: white;">, built when Rome was part of the </span>Eastern Roman Empire<span style="background-color: white;"> after reconquest from the </span>Kingdom of the Ostrogoths<span style="background-color: white;">. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Erected in front of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostra" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Rostra"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Rostra</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> and dedicated or rededicated in honour of the </span>Eastern Roman Emperor<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phocas" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Phocas"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Phocas</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> on August 1, 608 AD, it was the last addition made to the </span><i style="background-color: white;">Forum Romanum</i><span style="background-color: white;">. The fluted </span>Corinthian column<span style="background-color: white;"> stands 13.6 m (44 ft) tall on its cubical white marble </span>socle<span style="background-color: white;">. On stylistic grounds, the column seems to have been made in the 2nd century for an unknown structure, and then recycled for the present monument. Likewise, the socle was recycled from its original use supporting a statue dedicated to </span>Diocletian<span style="background-color: white;">; the former inscription was chiselled away to provide a space for the later text.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The base of the column was uncovered in 1813, and the inscription is in Latin. </span><span style="background-color: white;">The English translation is as follows:</span></span></p><p></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">To the best, most clement and pious ruler, our lord Phocas the perpetual emperor, crowned by God, the forever </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Augustus (honorific)">august</a><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><i style="background-color: white;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumph" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Roman triumph">triumphator</a></i><span style="background-color: white;">, did </span>Smaragdus<span style="background-color: white;">, former </span><i style="background-color: white;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praepositus_sacri_palatii" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Praepositus sacri palatii">praepositus sacri palatii</a></i><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><i style="background-color: white;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrikios" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Patrikios">patricius</a></i><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarch_of_Italy" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Exarch of Italy">Exarch of Italy</a><span style="background-color: white;">, devoted to His Clemency for the innumerable benefactions of His Piousness and for the peace acquired for Italy and its freedom preserved, this statue of His Majesty, blinking from the splendor of gold here on this tallest column for his eternal glory erect and dedicate, on the first day of the month of August, in the eleventh </span>indiction<span style="background-color: white;"> in the fifth year after the </span>consulate<span style="background-color: white;"> of His Piousness.</span></span></li></ul><p></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The precise occasion for this signal honour is unknown, though Phocas had formally donated the Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV, who rededicated it to all the martyrs and Mary (<i>Sancta Maria ad Martyres</i>). </span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Atop the column's capital was erected by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smaragdus" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Smaragdus">Smaragdus</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarch_of_Ravenna" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; outline-color: rgb(51, 102, 204);" target="_blank" title=""><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Exarch of Ravenna</span></a>, a "dazzling" gilded statue of Phocas (which probably only briefly stood there). </span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Rather than a demonstration to mark papal gratitude as it is sometimes casually declared to be, the gilded statue on its column was more likely an emblem of the imperial sovereignty over Rome, which was rapidly fading under pressure from the Lombards, and a personal mark of gratitude from Smaragdus, who had been recalled by Phocas from a long exile and was indebted to the Emperor for retrieving his position of power at Ravenna.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In October 610, Phocas was overthrown and killed; his statues everywhere were overthrown.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSl8Y4ToSe1Sc_iCoKSidxiAXm1IUNh6IYiXQsxJV__syYb5AAmkwQqHvPTCj5QxgBRVNp1ESLrh6XgBH6KuCynSRFocxOojNGkVLkDb6L4xNkKMYXnn5WjW-uxTcqzDHLK5W28ItY1ZQ/s450/11Revolt_of_the_Heraclii_solidus%252C_608_AD.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="190" data-original-width="450" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSl8Y4ToSe1Sc_iCoKSidxiAXm1IUNh6IYiXQsxJV__syYb5AAmkwQqHvPTCj5QxgBRVNp1ESLrh6XgBH6KuCynSRFocxOojNGkVLkDb6L4xNkKMYXnn5WjW-uxTcqzDHLK5W28ItY1ZQ/s16000/11Revolt_of_the_Heraclii_solidus%252C_608_AD.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: left;">Gold </span><i style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Solidus (coin)"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">solidus</span></a></i><span style="text-align: left;"> of Heraclius and his father in consular robes, struck during their revolt against Phocas.</span></span></div><p><br /></p><h3 style="background-color: white; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Revolt_against_Phocas_and_accession"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><u>Revolt against Phocas and Accession</u></span></span></h3><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Emperor Maurice was murdered by Phocas at the harbor of Eutropius on 27 November 602. </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The deposed emperor was forced to watch his five younger sons executed before he was beheaded himself.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantina_(empress)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Constantina (empress)">Empress Constantina</a> and her three daughters were temporarily spared and sent to a monastery. The palace eunuch Scholasticus aided their escape to St. Sophia, but the church turned them over to Phocas, who sent them back to the monastery. A few years later, they were all executed at the harbor of Eutropius when Constantina was found guilty of a conspiracy against Phocas.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">Phocas was widely regarded as an incompetent leader, by both much of the ruling class and army.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In 608, Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor </span>Phocas<span style="background-color: white;">, who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as </span>consuls<span style="background-color: white;">, though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span>Heraclius the Elder, </span></span><span><span style="background-color: white;">the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarch_of_Carthage" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Exarch of Carthage">Exarch of Carthage</a><span style="background-color: white;">,</span></span><span style="background-color: white;"> began to prepare to invade, by cutting off the supply of grain to Constantinople and assembling a large army and navy.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Heraclius's younger cousin </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicetas_(cousin_of_Heraclius)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nicetas (cousin of Heraclius)">Nicetas</a><span style="background-color: white;"> launched an overland invasion from Carthage into </span>Egypt<span style="background-color: white;">; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonus_(Sirmium)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Bonus (Sirmium)">Bonosus</a><span style="background-color: white;"> and secured the province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via </span>Sicily<span style="background-color: white;"> and </span>Cyprus<span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">As he approached </span>Constantinople<span style="background-color: white;">, he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow </span>aristocrats<span style="background-color: white;"> in the city, and soon arranged a ceremony where he was crowned and acclaimed as Emperor. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">When he reached the capital, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excubitors" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Excubitors">Excubitors</a><span style="background-color: white;">, an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas's son-in-law </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priscus_(magister_militum)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Priscus (magister militum)">Priscus</a><span style="background-color: white;">, deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">When Heraclius captured Phocas, he asked him "Is this how you have ruled, wretch?" Phocas's reply—"And will you rule better?"—so enraged Heraclius that </span><span style="background-color: #fcff01;"><b><u>he beheaded Phocas on the spot.</u></b><b><u> </u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">He later </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">had the genitalia removed</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> from the body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius, a powerful politician in the city.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEik_VUlKoDoe4rzA2tAVbG8p12BYYD2Li7KVJfjlutDZVpab96Q_DOPVBljuSeOiF24Ki74CA6KrF-P3LRLOPDvPoSvT87kqAFzIX5BIKmc_PXm-3FEpcr8ZIPOrSbYabbmGjeXjZ0wm20/s500/11column-phocas-roman-forum.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="250" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEik_VUlKoDoe4rzA2tAVbG8p12BYYD2Li7KVJfjlutDZVpab96Q_DOPVBljuSeOiF24Ki74CA6KrF-P3LRLOPDvPoSvT87kqAFzIX5BIKmc_PXm-3FEpcr8ZIPOrSbYabbmGjeXjZ0wm20/s16000/11column-phocas-roman-forum.jpg" /></a></div><br /><p><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/H4Gb_pGJYjA" title="YouTube video player" width="560"></iframe> </p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_of_Phocas" target="_blank">Column of Phocas</a><br /></p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" target="_blank">Exarchate of Ravenna</a></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-86569539272987247732021-06-06T20:41:00.001-07:002021-06-06T20:45:10.121-07:00The African Roman Fortress of Vaga<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii_bp2K2YTlugbqNuSjxBhjukkA0h3MbxZpmZD6hwS91FKzMUqrjakjgciwKACWBg2d2taQ9dz5ISK9sUEsMCcyvkDvF-JDU4kdIf-3YV_0CbD75wcXH2q1Al00wFvEwfHFS3Xy1H6Fzo/s500/11vaga.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii_bp2K2YTlugbqNuSjxBhjukkA0h3MbxZpmZD6hwS91FKzMUqrjakjgciwKACWBg2d2taQ9dz5ISK9sUEsMCcyvkDvF-JDU4kdIf-3YV_0CbD75wcXH2q1Al00wFvEwfHFS3Xy1H6Fzo/s16000/11vaga.JPG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Vaga</u></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Defending Roman North Africa</u></b></span></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Vaga</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Vecca</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> or </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Theodorias</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> is an ancient city in </span>Tunisia<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> built by the </span>Berbers<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and ruled sequentially by the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthaginians" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numidians" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Numidians">Numidians</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, the </span>Romans<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Vandals">Vandals</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and the </span>Byzantines<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> until it was captured by the </span>Arabs<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> who changed its name to the present day </span>Béja<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. The town was the capital of the </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numidian_Kingdom" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="">Numidian Kingdom</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> during the rule of </span>Jugurtha<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Vaga </span><span style="background-color: white;">fortress</span><span style="background-color: white;"> was built in the 2nd century BC and still exists till today which makes it one of oldest citadels in the region.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The fortress was built on the top of a hill of 305 meters, and this site was chosen so the castle can overlook the city and its surrounding plains and countryside.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Little is known about the date of the foundation of Vaga, but it's sure that it was before the foundation of Carthage.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">In 14 BC, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">the Romans demolished the old Carthaginian citadel and built a new one</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> on the ruins of the previous and built also fortifications with walls and 22 towers. </span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Romans erected many other monuments which some of them still exist today. And in 105 BC under the rule the Emperor </span></span>Trajan<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, the Romans began the building of the bridge near Vaga, the constructions lasted nearly 25 years and event ended only under the reign of Emperor </span>Hadrian<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and which become known as the </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Trajan bridge</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Vaga, still flourishing, was promoted by Emperor </span>Septimius Severus<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> to the rank of </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_colonia" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Roman colonia"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Roman colonia</span></a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> under the name of Colonia Septimia Vaga. The city continues its prosperity for nearly two centuries till the Vandal invasion of Africa.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The </span>Vandals<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> in 429 and under the leadership of </span>Genseric<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> stormed the Roman province of Africa and made it in 435 as their new </span>kingdom<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, in their route they destroyed several cities, within them </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Vaga</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> which was devastated. In 442, the </span>Western Roman Emperor<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span>Valentinian III<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> made peace with the Vandals giving them the land between the sea and the three cities of </span>Theveste<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, </span>Sicca Veneria<span style="color: #202122;"><span style="background-color: white;"> and Vaga. And in 448 Genseric </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">destroyed the fortifications of the city</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> and dismantled its castle.</span></span></span></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj67j2KI4_BJEDdeVsCK9IdbEhxZfHNH_RNjbkUJMLIm7YJchIAgOPEMQKeAWLCHpPaIRMzEqwjOQOvjvVxLrPDcINyEUY8FyQqRLCCXvN6r1zUov51Bidb_ZH2X5onGjFJCEa5FxPJegs/s500/11vaga3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="281" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj67j2KI4_BJEDdeVsCK9IdbEhxZfHNH_RNjbkUJMLIm7YJchIAgOPEMQKeAWLCHpPaIRMzEqwjOQOvjvVxLrPDcINyEUY8FyQqRLCCXvN6r1zUov51Bidb_ZH2X5onGjFJCEa5FxPJegs/s16000/11vaga3.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">The Roman Fortress of Vaga</div><br /><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><u>Rule By The Eastern Roman Empire</u></b></span></span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In 533, has the </span>Eastern Roman Emperor<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>Justinian I<span style="background-color: white;"> restored Africa as a </span>Roman province<span style="background-color: white;"> and put an end to the Vandalic rule, and with that Vaga became a flourishing town again, as the Emperor charged the Count Paulus to leads the works to restore the fortress of the city back. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">But the Emperor didn't only </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">rebuilt the castle</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, but he also rebuilt the entire city which was ruined by the Vandal rule, and he enlarged, embellished and repopulate the city like it was before, and to be grateful for his actions, the townspeople had renamed their city after the </span></span>Empress Theodora<span style="background-color: white;">, Theodorias.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Because of the endless wars and incursions by the Moors Justinian ordered the building of a chain of forts along the frontier. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Behind this first line was a second barrier of larger towns and stronger garrisons. Watchmen on the first line used signal fires to alert the larger towns of barbarian invasions for locals could seek refuge inside the walled cities. <span style="background-color: white;">Vaga was part of this system.</span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">With the </span>Muslim conquest of north Africa<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> the new rulers of the country gave fortress the name "Kasbah" and made it the official center of their representatives of the northern-region.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Ottomans too contributed to the expansion of the citadel by establishing a flanking tower that protected the southern parts of the Kasbah and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissary" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Janissary">Janissary</a> garrison, and in 1677 the Tunisian monarch Ali I Bey supported the garrison by a battalion of 500 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spahis" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="">Spahis</a>.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">After the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881, the Kasbah become a Gendarmerie barracks from September 21, 1888 till the independence of the country in 1957.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh86KBPp8hHfJWqHRyLNisDVgLGW91mo4E7ZbkZ0Yg7F1y0u6eW_dcQVzXn-p14gnQQpEVjw0Z6hGWMWZq69wibe0I-XNEVHDHdh5uU4fLy42Vz0ABLa286Cr2DSw6IrRBitNmUgueR7Ho/s500/11rome.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="348" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh86KBPp8hHfJWqHRyLNisDVgLGW91mo4E7ZbkZ0Yg7F1y0u6eW_dcQVzXn-p14gnQQpEVjw0Z6hGWMWZq69wibe0I-XNEVHDHdh5uU4fLy42Vz0ABLa286Cr2DSw6IrRBitNmUgueR7Ho/s16000/11rome.PNG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Vaga was one of many North African fortifications that protected coastal Roman cities from desert raiders. A number of the forts were built by </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">the Patrician <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_(Byzantine_general)" style="color: #2288bb; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">Solomon.</span></a></span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHxcmf53MaIVNeIIHvl-3UtrU-CZF7_08uWaqEl0fg68iH5GuLKbIWub5hf54-2sV4Fe8myDPO0GuKwD0ZHGcsOUDTKSTqH0gsmQJkdCRaB6ATwp7VD4n3QOtPu0OBD1j7z2A-KUvZI_o/s500/11prov+%2528453x500%2529.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="453" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHxcmf53MaIVNeIIHvl-3UtrU-CZF7_08uWaqEl0fg68iH5GuLKbIWub5hf54-2sV4Fe8myDPO0GuKwD0ZHGcsOUDTKSTqH0gsmQJkdCRaB6ATwp7VD4n3QOtPu0OBD1j7z2A-KUvZI_o/s16000/11prov+%2528453x500%2529.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b style="color: #222222; text-align: start;">Byzacena</b><span style="color: #222222;"> was a Late Roman province in the central part of </span>Roman North Africa<span style="color: #222222;">, which is now roughly Tunisia, split off from </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_Proconsularis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #2288bb; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Africa Proconsularis"><span style="color: blue;">Africa Proconsularis</span></a><span style="color: #222222;">.</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"> Vaga is located to the left of Carthage.</span></span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzlxkYO0BeqpwtjKOHn-rv8-tKa4YJR6VKLow1SWs481vuvpI9rs6p7jmrJTksSH0Bjx-RSkSzmKKlmSaTF7b-HRTd5_MeStnM-eht4BEIubLwlCAu30V_GTWz65_U-eCps1005khaK_E/s500/11vaga2.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzlxkYO0BeqpwtjKOHn-rv8-tKa4YJR6VKLow1SWs481vuvpI9rs6p7jmrJTksSH0Bjx-RSkSzmKKlmSaTF7b-HRTd5_MeStnM-eht4BEIubLwlCAu30V_GTWz65_U-eCps1005khaK_E/s16000/11vaga2.JPG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: large;"><strong><span style="font-family: inherit;">By Procopius</span></strong><span style="color: #222222; font-size: 13.2px;"> </span></span><span style="color: #222222; font-size: 13.2px;"> </span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procopius#The_Buildings_of_Justinian" style="color: #2288bb; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">The Buildings of Justinian</span></a><br /><span style="color: #222222;">Written in the 550s AD</span></span></span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px;" /><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">These things, then, were done by Justinian at modern Carthage. In the surrounding region, which is called Proconsularis, </span><b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">there was an unwalled city, Vaga by name</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, which could be captured not only by a planned attack of the barbarians, but even if they merely chanced to be passing that way. This place </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><b><u>the Emperor Justinian surrounded with </u></b><b><u>very strong defenses</u></b></span><span style="background-color: white;"> and made it worthy to be called a city, and capable of affording safe protection to its inhabitants. And they, having received this favour, now call the city Theodorias in honour of the Empress. He also built in this district a fortress which they call Tucca. </span></span></p><div class="justify"><div class="justify" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In Byzacium there is a city on the coast, Adramytus by name, which has been large and flourishing from ancient times, and for this reason it won the name and rank of metropolis of the region, since it chances to be first in point of size and, in general, of prosperity.<br /><br />The Vandals had torn the circuit-wall of this city down to the ground, so that the Romans might not be able to use it against them. And it lay conveniently exposed to the Moors when they overran that region. Nevertheless, the Libyans who lived there tried to make provision, so far as they could, for their own safety, and so they made a barricade out of the ruins of the walls and joined their houses together; and from these they would fight against their assailants and try to defend themselves, though their hope was slight and their position precarious. So their safety always hung by a hair and they were kept standing on one leg, being exposed to the attacks of the Moors and to the neglect of the Vandals.</span></div><div class="justify" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="justify"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">However, when the Emperor Justinian became master of Libya by conquest, he put an exceedingly massive wall about the city and </span><span style="background-color: white;">stationed there an adequate garrison of troops</span><span style="background-color: white;">, thus giving the inhabitants assurance of safety and enabling them to disdain all enemies. For this reason they now call the place Justinianê, thus repaying the Emperor for their deliverance and displaying their gratitude simply by the adoption of the name, since they had no other means by which they could requite the Emperor's beneficence, nor did he himself wish other requital. </span></span></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhN92R_7GjEbnKgAzD7Tjo0xdS696nlnSJyywkZEKanuevwKL3Se35SPrsc8XSQBIsMkdAMdpUXEww8DJte74r2E8HkU1xZ156MON1auXt1cW5Z0BD7CJGe0gADIdj-TDEQmEEN7UL7nnA/s752/11vaga4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="752" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhN92R_7GjEbnKgAzD7Tjo0xdS696nlnSJyywkZEKanuevwKL3Se35SPrsc8XSQBIsMkdAMdpUXEww8DJte74r2E8HkU1xZ156MON1auXt1cW5Z0BD7CJGe0gADIdj-TDEQmEEN7UL7nnA/s16000/11vaga4.jpg" /></a></div><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_of_B%C3%A9ja" target="_blank">(Kasbah)</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaga_(Tunisia)" target="_blank">(Vaga)</a></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-52560335991240766392021-05-07T18:36:00.000-07:002021-05-07T18:36:45.919-07:00Byzantine Land Mines<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2dVP4PAj4XZWTWQZPMWwQt_nYQvzwtZOkCbYoA7jL_RLzcFQELXO5dqs2RuQYjyx2OGbCbkwoIsDKGxWSLtixf1pDQ0J2rNyuLmU0X4g0FjFcQSjgDpWVxFJSh0RIhce-qS4R2w-QgF0/s500/11mine.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="459" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2dVP4PAj4XZWTWQZPMWwQt_nYQvzwtZOkCbYoA7jL_RLzcFQELXO5dqs2RuQYjyx2OGbCbkwoIsDKGxWSLtixf1pDQ0J2rNyuLmU0X4g0FjFcQSjgDpWVxFJSh0RIhce-qS4R2w-QgF0/s16000/11mine.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Now That is Going To Hurt</span></u></b></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b style="background-color: white;">The "landmine" called a caltrop</b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">is an </span>area denial weapon<span style="background-color: white;"> made up of two or more sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always points upward from a stable base</span><span style="background-color: white;">. Historically, caltrops were part of defenses that served to slow the advance of troops, especially </span>horses<span style="background-color: white;">, </span>chariots<span style="background-color: white;">, and </span>war elephants<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">and were particularly effective against the soft feet of </span>camels<span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In Roman Republic warfare the caltrop was being <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">used against enemy war elephants</u></b> as early as 279BC in the Battle of Asculum.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Archaeological excavations around Alesia show the use of caltrops by Caesar's legions. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The late Roman writer <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetius" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Vegetius"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Vegetius</span></a>, referring in his work <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_militari" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="De re militari"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">De re militari</span></a></i> to scythed chariots, wrote:</span></p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The armed chariots used in war by Antiochus and Mithridates at first terrified the Romans, but they afterwards made a jest of them. As a chariot of this sort does not always meet with plain and level ground, the least obstruction stops it. And if one of the horses be either killed or wounded, it falls into the enemy's hands. The Roman soldiers rendered them useless chiefly by the following contrivance: at the instant the engagement began, they strewed the field of battle with caltrops, and the </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">horses that drew the chariots, running full speed on them, were infallibly destroyed.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> A caltrop is a device composed of four spikes or points arranged so that in whatever manner it is thrown on the ground, it rests on three and presents the fourth upright.</span></span></p></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A Roman historian mentions their use against Persian cavalry in the 5th century. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In the 6th century the Roman historian Procopius tells how the general Belisarius used caltrops to defend open gates during the siege of Rome.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">As cavalry rose in importance the use of caltrops gained in importance to hamper an enemy cavalry attack or to restrict movement.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In an anonymous 6th century Roman treatise caltrops are presented as a full-fledged war stratagem.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">He said the caltrops should be <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">used to protect the Roman fortified camp</u></b>. The caltrops would be laid along the ditch some 12.5 meters in length. The commander of each unit would be responsible to gather them for their re-use and to prevent them from injuring their own troops when they leave camp.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Rear guard soldiers were told to have a supply of caltrops available to delay or wound any enemy in pursuit.</span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaEHUpKiBjDAMWw6hzr9qhMLuTIyoz8iU2lr61kDs2JpewqYwSpNdJg0INd1QJOOVhgFW0OzBSz2hbCBH9btSc8rjkm0Toc5Tpzp_ugVPT4BhcD_mcZMHJ5FMMJWOqJ-f59tXXJLrDN5I/s694/11caltrop.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="694" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaEHUpKiBjDAMWw6hzr9qhMLuTIyoz8iU2lr61kDs2JpewqYwSpNdJg0INd1QJOOVhgFW0OzBSz2hbCBH9btSc8rjkm0Toc5Tpzp_ugVPT4BhcD_mcZMHJ5FMMJWOqJ-f59tXXJLrDN5I/s16000/11caltrop.jpg" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Emperor Maurice's</span></a> war manual the <i style="background-color: white;">Strategikon</i><span face="sans-serif"><span style="background-color: white;">, the caltrop is also shown to protect the camp as well as for use on the battlefield. A light wagon was assigned to Roman units with "caltrops tied together with light cords attached to an iron peg so they can be easily collected." If attacked from the rear the </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">caltrops can be thrown from the wagon into the path of an enemy.</u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">When part of the army is forced to leave the main force they are told to bring caltrops along.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Maurice called for a "minefield of calthrops" on the battlefield. Unobserved by the enemy, Roman troops were to spread calthrops along the entire field of battle <b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">100 feet deep</span></u></b>. In four or five places there would be 300 foot wide gaps that would allow Roman troops to go and return unhurt. These passages would be market with tree branches or piles of stone. If an enemy was enticed into this minefield they would be confused and more easily destroyed.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The <i>Taktika</i> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Emperor Leo VI</span></a> written in the 9th and 10th centuries reaffirms the use of calthrops. Almost word for word Leo repeats Maurice's writings on calthrop use in camps or the battlefield.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Leo is original in urging calthrops be thrown on to the decks of enemy ships to hamper the movement of the crews.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In the 10th century work by Heron of Byzantium he suggested wooden soled shoes to protect the infantry and farm rakes to clear a path of calthrops.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In 1082 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Emperor Alexios Komnenos</span></a> used fields of calthrops against Norman cavalry in the Balkans - - - - but the Normans avoided the calthrops by flanking the Roman line.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span class="comment-copy" face="Arial, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">From the <a href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/AnnaComnena-Alexiad00.asp" rel="nofollow noreferrer" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: auto; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Alexiad:</span></a> "There he [Alexios I Komnenos] assembled his regiments and mercenaries again and started on his march against Bohemund, with a new device in his head for overcoming the Franks. <b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">For he prepared iron caltrops,</b> and on the eve of the day on which he expected a battle, he had them spread over the intermediate part of the plain, where he guessed the Frankish cavalry would make their fiercest onslaught, thus aiming to break the first irresistible attack of the Latins by piercing the feet of their horses."</span><span face="Arial, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif" style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">But nothing lasts forever.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">At the end the Empire's population was exhausted, their wealth was spent, their economy was shattered and perhaps worst of all they were mostly alienated from Western Europe who had come to their aid in the previous centuries. </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A few competent rulers in a row would have helped them more than caltrops or maybe just a few competent diplomats.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/UXu2PKi81V0" title="YouTube video player" width="550"></iframe>
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcFpsNDsGj5hjm2dDvL_OYBi6Bj8R50zmDBpJyRSL17KE-oULaNX_8QlrTHAdRhqmEpOIOmed2Rd-bRJwMrntAzL6pleeObNeNNm8QFF2o3aLWXFAfUkt0s9epxGQVxe0N-B99sedJLhs/s450/11caltrop2.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="367" data-original-width="450" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcFpsNDsGj5hjm2dDvL_OYBi6Bj8R50zmDBpJyRSL17KE-oULaNX_8QlrTHAdRhqmEpOIOmed2Rd-bRJwMrntAzL6pleeObNeNNm8QFF2o3aLWXFAfUkt0s9epxGQVxe0N-B99sedJLhs/s16000/11caltrop2.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifO2QOXbVaqBMFTJeFD2m3nQcMxWNlqTYzZrH2JIIYjbUMwW9sxYFhnusAr-55IToAgEK2wRCWIhFZEjxxek0MQmY7pg_gGanqMUjvIKnTbhyphenhyphen6NRXR4p_gzM8Tvmd0b3bCFhAb_UcSTZc/s500/11caltrop3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="292" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifO2QOXbVaqBMFTJeFD2m3nQcMxWNlqTYzZrH2JIIYjbUMwW9sxYFhnusAr-55IToAgEK2wRCWIhFZEjxxek0MQmY7pg_gGanqMUjvIKnTbhyphenhyphen6NRXR4p_gzM8Tvmd0b3bCFhAb_UcSTZc/s16000/11caltrop3.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /><br /></div><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltrop" target="_blank">(Caltrop)</a> <a href="https://www.academia.edu/2080460/TRIBOLOS_A_BYZANTINE_LANDMINE?fbclid=IwAR0phQ0-V_3fGiCl04FQ7AirEnS0YUbkGrvX8CihDYAvFBys0qCUUuq_rqk" target="_blank">(BYZANTINE LANDMINE)</a></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-15433233138557706752021-03-27T14:48:00.006-07:002022-02-13T15:37:24.078-08:00The Fall of Jerusalem and Antioch Ends Rome in the Middle East<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3PJ5vXQop-N8oeHWuP3TMLM4DRZtAMLzHcKd8qRLE6x5i0HZRO2vqzaye2hKH9Wf2TnTvJoH1UNmqQuNL_Iu8wROrJTl0lfEK7tLCNWKWPu4q87ilEmzrVjBW0NJ3BDGVogjHJwNTaOY/s700/11byzantine.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="700" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3PJ5vXQop-N8oeHWuP3TMLM4DRZtAMLzHcKd8qRLE6x5i0HZRO2vqzaye2hKH9Wf2TnTvJoH1UNmqQuNL_Iu8wROrJTl0lfEK7tLCNWKWPu4q87ilEmzrVjBW0NJ3BDGVogjHJwNTaOY/s16000/11byzantine.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #050505; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Artwork by Alexander Groznov</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #050505; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Eastern Roman Soldier</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #050505; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><div style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: center; white-space: normal;"><b><u>The Roman Middle East Ends</u></b></div><div style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: center; white-space: normal;"><b><u>The Arab Consolidation</u></b></div><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 1.4; white-space: normal;"></span><span style="white-space: normal;"></span><div style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: center; white-space: normal;"><b><u>Battle for the Middle East<span style="color: #222222;"> </span><span style="color: red;">Part X</span></u></b></div></span></span></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Here we are at </span><b style="color: #222222;"><u><span style="color: blue;">Part X</span></u></b><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"> of the titanic Battle for the Middle East.</span><br style="color: #222222;" /><br style="color: #222222;" /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Where Eastern Roman military history is addressed at all there are casual references to a single Battle of Yarmouk in 636 AD. "Historians" effectively say the Arabs just magically showed up one day at Yarmouk and defeated a weak Roman Empire.</span><br style="color: #222222;" /><br style="color: #222222;" /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">Nothing could be further from the truth. This series details a Roman-Muslim slug fest taking place over many years and many battles over a huge geographical area.</span><br style="color: #222222;" /><br style="color: #222222;" /><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">In 629 AD the Roman Empire was enjoying a much deserved period of peace after a brutal 26 year long war of all wars with the Persian Empire. Finally there was peace. No one in Constantinople had any idea that a fresh invasion from the southern deserts would happen in a matter of months.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #222222;">After years and years of fighting the Muslims the Romans finally lost Syria and Palestine due to a freak sand storm at the </span><a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/War%20-%20Battle%20for%20the%20Middle%20East%20Part%20IX" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">The 2nd Battle of Yarmouk.</span></a></span></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: large;">The Fighting Goes On and On</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Yarmouk did not end the fighting. The Romans fought on for another two years doing their best to hold off the invasion and even drive the Muslims back.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The problem is a near total lack of any detailed information on the campaigns. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">So I am using Part X of this series to rapidly wrap up the final Muslim conquest and consolidation of the Roman Middle East.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggzegqM9snbCA3_a_70V16mGoQflmG12v_FPhzO0_tPbQfAtXYdoIH_Z_u7vX35KMbeYO2GeBZiX1sbEgF_bGcg6_InxwZX47y350gL3flsaYf7VbUtgfSPqTknzQHY0p2eDsyMjZZapc/s446/11Byzantine+map.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="446" data-original-width="444" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggzegqM9snbCA3_a_70V16mGoQflmG12v_FPhzO0_tPbQfAtXYdoIH_Z_u7vX35KMbeYO2GeBZiX1sbEgF_bGcg6_InxwZX47y350gL3flsaYf7VbUtgfSPqTknzQHY0p2eDsyMjZZapc/s16000/11Byzantine+map.PNG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-size: 10.56px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">Map from <i>The Great Arab Conquests </i>(1964)</span></span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 10.56px;" /><span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The initial problem for the Muslims was as they moved north into Syria they were leaving active Roman armies behind them in Jerusalem and in coastal cities like Caesarea, Tyre, Sidon, Beirut and Tripoli.</span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgprxp4P-RHS6ZlSR30TwEq3kXO6jK3UDGZfDoodbN1nfDmCT69KWwzyYMcz1K0pvZCreUMxzoEJj20ZVln2m4wCQwiEu7VzO2f6xKpMgP_s_eO5zV2Ehyphenhypheng6MkbBZ5VWcETsuMMeAlmdPY/s606/11byzantin+map.PNG" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="606" data-original-width="540" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgprxp4P-RHS6ZlSR30TwEq3kXO6jK3UDGZfDoodbN1nfDmCT69KWwzyYMcz1K0pvZCreUMxzoEJj20ZVln2m4wCQwiEu7VzO2f6xKpMgP_s_eO5zV2Ehyphenhypheng6MkbBZ5VWcETsuMMeAlmdPY/s16000/11byzantin+map.PNG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Roman troops were in short supply after their defeat at the 2nd Battle of Yarmouk. So the Emperor Heraclius ordered a general redeployment of his remaining soldiers from Syria and</span></b><span><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="color: #222222; font-size: 13.2px;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaestina_Salutaris" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b>Palaestina Salutaris</b></span></a></span><b><span style="font-size: medium;"> to the Taurus Mountains region to better defend Anatolia. </span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">The Roman garrisons holding out in the coastal cities had been supplied by the Roman Navy. Those troops were slowly withdrawn to the north. <span style="font-family: inherit;">The port city of</span></span></b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-align: left; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Caesarea"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Caesarea</span></a> was put under a Muslim<span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> siege. However Caesarea would not be taken until 640 (four years after Yarmouk), when at last, the garrison surrendered to the Muslim</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"> governor of Syria. </span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhar4TUqeJ_3iS8Q98PR5nd_t56PgdDF4A71sdbgrWgcoTIw1oOAC4YUA-dzIWDcWDQv4KPozXcylTWxTuJF8JixD7flMZ48C7NBA26bdyRGd4Eev0O-xlNPwE-SN6C__StijiSroD1n8Q/s540/byzantine+jerusalem.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="355" data-original-width="540" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhar4TUqeJ_3iS8Q98PR5nd_t56PgdDF4A71sdbgrWgcoTIw1oOAC4YUA-dzIWDcWDQv4KPozXcylTWxTuJF8JixD7flMZ48C7NBA26bdyRGd4Eev0O-xlNPwE-SN6C__StijiSroD1n8Q/s16000/byzantine+jerusalem.jpg" /></a></div><br /><p><b><u><span style="font-size: large;">The 6 Month Siege of Jerusalem</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">After the 2nd Battle of Yarmouk the Muslim commanders <span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">held a council of war in early October 636 to discuss future plans. Opinions of objectives varied between the coastal city of </span>Caesarea<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and Jerusalem. The Muslim commander Abu Ubaidah could see the importance of both these cities, which had resisted all Muslim attempts at capture. Unable to decide on the matter, he wrote to Caliph Umar for instructions. In his reply, the caliph ordered them to capture the latter. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Muslims arrived at Jerusalem around early November, and the Roman garrison withdrew into the fortified city.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Jerusalem had been well-fortified after Heraclius recaptured it from the Persians.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> After the Roman defeat at Yarmouk, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophronius_of_Jerusalem" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Sophronius of Jerusalem">Sophronius</a><span style="background-color: white;">, the </span>Patriarch of Jerusalem<span style="background-color: white;">, repaired its defenses.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Muslims had so far not attempted any siege of the city. However, since 634, Saracen forces had the potential to threaten all routes to the city. Although it was not encircled, it had been in a state of siege since the Muslims captured the towns of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pella,_Jordan" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Pella, Jordan">Pella</a><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosra" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Bosra">Bosra</a><span style="background-color: white;"> east of the </span>Jordan River<span style="background-color: white;">. After the 2nd Battle of Yarmouk, the city was severed from the rest of Syria, and was presumably being prepared for a siege that seemed inevitable.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">When the Muslim army reached </span>Jericho<span><span style="background-color: white;">, Sophronius </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">collected all the holy relics</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> including the True Cross, and secretly sent them to the coast to be taken to </span></span>Constantinople<span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> The Muslim troops besieged the city some time in November 636. Instead of relentless assaults on the city,</span><span style="background-color: white;"> they decided to press on with the siege until the Romans ran short of supplies and a bloodless surrender could be negotiated.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">After six months, the Patriarch </span>Sophronius<span style="background-color: white;"> agreed to surrender, on condition that he submit only to the </span>Caliph<span style="background-color: white;">. According to tradition, in 637 or 638, Caliph </span>Umar<span style="background-color: white;"> traveled to Jerusalem in person to receive the submission of the city.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzsRaHAsWalGB4QNFPmfLraRyct6wFtUZESa7B1NPN7OJdsJ6yT5mtwb9dJYJWuz24iN1pF9qqmQ8KDXcZmXPfn_JZ95ke74xhcdkfN32D9o81mKlAyH6y-ODTT44TEHACPKoaiSuMS2c/s640/11bedouin+lance+nice+1+1280.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="640" data-original-width="478" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzsRaHAsWalGB4QNFPmfLraRyct6wFtUZESa7B1NPN7OJdsJ6yT5mtwb9dJYJWuz24iN1pF9qqmQ8KDXcZmXPfn_JZ95ke74xhcdkfN32D9o81mKlAyH6y-ODTT44TEHACPKoaiSuMS2c/s16000/11bedouin+lance+nice+1+1280.jpg" /></a></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>This 19th Century Arab warrior might have looked much like the Muslims fighting the Romans.</b></span></span></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span><p></p><p><b style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><u>Battle of Hazir (June 637)</u></span></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Marching into northern Syria Muslim Generals Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcis,_Syria" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Chalcis, Syria"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Chalcis</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, which was strategically the most significant Roman fort in the area. Through Chalcis the Romans would be able to guard </span>Anatolia<span style="background-color: white;">, Heraclius' homeland of </span>Armenia<span style="background-color: white;">, and the regional capital, </span>Antioch<span style="background-color: white;">. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his mobile guard towards Chalcis.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The virtually impregnable fort was guarded by Roman troops under Menas, reportedly second in prestige only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Roman tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy the leading elements of Muslim army before the main body arrived.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The battle began on a plain three miles east to the east</span><span style="background-color: white;">. Khalid deployed his Mobile Guard into its fighting formation for battle. Menas arranged his army in one center and two wings and was himself in the front ranks leading the army like Khalid. Soon fierce clashes broke out at Hazir. The battle was still in its early stages when Menas was killed. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">As the news of his death spread among his men, the Roman soldiers went wild with fury and savagely attacked to avenge their leader's death. Khalid took a cavalry regiment and maneuvered from the side of one of the wings to attack the Roman army from the rear. Soon the entire Roman army was encircled and defeated.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Abu Ubaidah soon joined Khalid at Chalcis, which surrendered some time in June. With this strategic victory, the territory north of Chalcis lay open to the Muslims.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtHu_svfE9gF5CU-GRENwyaTDjjYlrQNF9A8KX39f9utqfE0HIhLWKCn4QX1LL9sehyphenhyphenUAznhTpOdMalzeopO50TpWVzzQUvx14lq8HWSg9qabDShLDoqXFD9WCFapk3j8J2SZS4CuZTCA/s500/11aleppo2.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="368" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtHu_svfE9gF5CU-GRENwyaTDjjYlrQNF9A8KX39f9utqfE0HIhLWKCn4QX1LL9sehyphenhyphenUAznhTpOdMalzeopO50TpWVzzQUvx14lq8HWSg9qabDShLDoqXFD9WCFapk3j8J2SZS4CuZTCA/s16000/11aleppo2.PNG" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Aleppo’s Citadel</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Aleppo The "Jewel of Syria"</u></b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-align: start;">The Citadel is a focal point of the entire city, it was a fortress used to protect the city and all of it’s inhabitants. T</span><span style="text-align: start;">he design of the walls allowed archers to fire their arrows down into any mass of troops.</span></span></b></div><p></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b><u>Siege of Aleppo (<span style="background-color: #f8f9fa;">August–October 637)</span></u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Muslims marched northward deeper into Syria. After taking many small and large cities, both </span>Abu Ubaidah<span style="background-color: white;"> and </span>Khalid<span style="background-color: white;"> met and marched to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Aleppo"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Aleppo</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">.</span> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">There a strong garrison under a </span>Roman<span style="background-color: white;"> general named Joachim held the fort. Aleppo consisted of a large walled city and a smaller but virtually impregnable fort outside the city atop a hill, a little more than a quarter of a mile across, surrounded by a wide moat.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">Rather than stay inside this powerful fortress the Roman commander Joachim, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">met the Muslim army in the open outside the fort.</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> He was defeated and hastily retreated back inside. He boldly launched many sallies to break the siege but failed every time. Joachim received no signs of any help from the Emperor </span></span>Heraclius<span style="background-color: white;"> (who could indeed send none). Consequently, around October 637, the Romans surrendered on terms according to which the soldiers of the garrison were allowed to depart in peace.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In an unusual move Joachim converted to Islam. He would prove himself a remarkably able and loyal officer to the caliphate and would fight gallantly under various Muslim generals.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHiA8PB_0O1uQaMDTv4YNteznERZlEqTM-iHNsO_CI_AJP1JGuR_UT__MBdTgTDXcrENxkXuYLGlvgjW6IIyvcGdMjnBYS5SxzlmwLC6yCCYpIz5-IZ-gm2pIos7Vndo7UmRh2LG_eHSc/s1582/11antioch.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="770" data-original-width="1582" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHiA8PB_0O1uQaMDTv4YNteznERZlEqTM-iHNsO_CI_AJP1JGuR_UT__MBdTgTDXcrENxkXuYLGlvgjW6IIyvcGdMjnBYS5SxzlmwLC6yCCYpIz5-IZ-gm2pIos7Vndo7UmRh2LG_eHSc/w400-h195/11antioch.PNG" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Click to Enlarge</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1b; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;"><b>A beautiful reconstruction of Roman Antioch</b></span></span></div><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: white;">Antioch</span><span style="background-color: white;"> was the center of the </span><span class="df_rq" data-entity-tipid="df_rq_tip_Seleucid_Empire" style="background-color: white;">Seleucid kingdom</span><span style="background-color: white;"> until 64 BC</span><span style="background-color: white;">, when it was annexed by </span><span style="background-color: white;">Rome</span><span style="background-color: white;"> and was made the capital of the </span><span style="background-color: white;">Roman</span><span style="background-color: white;"> province of Syria. It became the third largest city of the </span><span style="background-color: white;">Roman</span><span style="background-color: white;"> Empire in size and importance (after </span><span style="background-color: white;">Rome</span><span style="background-color: white;"> and Alexandria) and possessed magnificent temples, theatres, </span><span class="df_rq" data-entity-tipid="df_rq_tip_Roman_aqueduct" style="background-color: white;">aqueducts</span><span style="background-color: white;">, and baths.</span></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></b></span></p><p><b><u><span style="font-size: large;">Battle of the Iron Bridge (October 637)</span></u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Before marching towards the great city of Antioch, Khalid and Abu Ubaidah decided to isolate the city from Anatolia. They accordingly sent detachments north to eliminate all possible Roman forces and captured the garrison town of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azaz" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Azaz"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Azaz</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, some 30 miles from Aleppo.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The capture and clearance of Azaz was essential to ensure that no large Roman forces remained north of </span>Aleppo<span style="background-color: white;">, from where they could strike at the flank and rear of the Muslim army during the operation against Antioch.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">After Azaz the Muslims moved on Antioch. The resulting battle took place about 12 miles from the city. Its name came from a nearby nine-arch stone bridge</span><span style="background-color: white;"> spanning the </span>Orontes River<span style="background-color: white;"> which had gates trimmed with iron.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Again, we have <b><u><span style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red;">ZERO</span></u></b> real information on events so the claims of troop levels for both sides is largely a fantasy.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The Muslims are said to have had 17,000 troops. Who knows? The Romans perhaps 20,000. Again who knows? Certainly Roman troops from captured cities were allowed to leave. It is logical that most of them would end up in Antioch to bolster defenses.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">Why did the Romans fight a major battle outside the city walls?</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">At best this was an act of total and complete stupidity. These troops should have manned the the city walls which were partly protected by the </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Orontes River<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Khalid played a prominent role with his Mobile guard</span><span style="background-color: white;">. The Roman forces suffered heavy losses and were defeated. The claim is that Roman casualties in this battle were the third highest in the </span>Muslim conquest of Syria<span style="background-color: white;">, only exceeded by the battles of </span>Ajnadayn<span style="background-color: white;"> and the 2nd Yarmouk.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> The remnants of the defeated Roman force fled to Antioch. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Muslim army later moved up and laid siege to Antioch. The city surrendered almost at once on 30 October, 637. </span><span style="background-color: white;">According to the pact</span><span style="background-color: white;"> the defeated Roman soldiers were again allowed to depart in peace.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDwKhCdaUTVbYpqAdzXQzlAx2qewa98smbcAAyrwriDpv_x92JILpvyo7vXI6c2PoAp3dTcFM14NdeHbo0q4Qc6bUup9lwO43MB3ZI-tcir3DdP572lpLQL1zKIDnMMb90fzc4B6SCkfM/s500/11rome22.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="500" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDwKhCdaUTVbYpqAdzXQzlAx2qewa98smbcAAyrwriDpv_x92JILpvyo7vXI6c2PoAp3dTcFM14NdeHbo0q4Qc6bUup9lwO43MB3ZI-tcir3DdP572lpLQL1zKIDnMMb90fzc4B6SCkfM/s16000/11rome22.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Late Roman Reenactors</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/667025394788849858/" target="_blank">(pinterest)</a><br /></div><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u>A <span style="color: red;">Major</span> Roman Counter Attack (638)</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Here is where historians are driven insane. Literally mountains of books have been written about Gettysburg and D-Day, but we have as close to ZERO information as possible about operations in northern Syria.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">I will have to speculate.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Emperor Heraclius must have been super angry at his idiot general surrendering Antioch in spite of him having a fairly large Roman Army at his disposal. So I assume the Emperor planned this <b style="background-color: #fcff01; text-decoration-line: underline;">double attack on the Muslims on two different fronts</b><span style="background-color: white;"> - one attack the coast and another attack inland.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-McIdBdwQIDbyalQkP-J8lVoOjzzp9ajGyhLXP1dZ-6YK7OJ3T4O_EGD4LAUC8Mi0lKDcSI0atkbR1MiMBhkFeJead20YCFzEdFUAdEA7N3rQG-WrC8IGzZsd1NfCiyLV4aNVI-lK5dQ/s356/11antioch2.PNG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="224" data-original-width="356" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-McIdBdwQIDbyalQkP-J8lVoOjzzp9ajGyhLXP1dZ-6YK7OJ3T4O_EGD4LAUC8Mi0lKDcSI0atkbR1MiMBhkFeJead20YCFzEdFUAdEA7N3rQG-WrC8IGzZsd1NfCiyLV4aNVI-lK5dQ/w400-h252/11antioch2.PNG" width="400" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span><span style="background-color: white;">One was </span><b style="background-color: #fcff01; color: red; text-decoration-line: underline;">a Roman Amphibious Attack</b></span> to recapture Antioch. We see the Roman Navy landing an army on the coast in the Spring of 638 and march the 20 miles inland to take Antioch. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The cleverness and power of this attack cannot be overstated. The navy landed what must have been a large Roman Army behind enemy lines to attack a major walled fortress. That means this was not just a raid. The army had to be large enough to not only defend itself but to attack and capture a large enemy held city. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The navy might have consisted of several hundred troop transport and and supply ships bringing everything from soldiers, horses, weapons, food etc. The number of troops is only a guess. Certainly no less than 5,000 men and perhaps more. The mix of cavalry and infantry is unknown.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">An enemy held city would not surrender to a small force. So this army had to be on the larger side.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">The details are lost to us. It appears no meaningful battle was fought. The Muslims abandoned Antioch. The Romans walked into the city and restored their government.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In support of the coastal attack on Antioch we see </span><b style="background-color: #fcff01; text-decoration-line: underline;">Roman Christian Arab Allies</b><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;"> attack</u></b> the Muslims inland. The Christian Arabs assembled from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Upper Mesopotamia</span></a> and </span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">from </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circesium" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Circesium"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Circesium</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span>Hīt<span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The Muslim commander </span><span style="background-color: white;">Abu Ubaidah suddenly found himself between Christian Arabs moving toward Homs and a Roman army on the coast. </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Based on the actions of those involved the situation must have been serious.</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;"> </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Abu Ubaidah withdrew all his forces from northern Syria to Emesa, and the Christians laid in a siege. In response the Caliph ordered 4,000 men to leave the active Persian war front and to march into Syria. </span><span style="background-color: white;">Muslims attacked </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C4%ABt" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Hīt"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Hīt</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, which they found to be well fortified; thus, they left a fraction of the army to impose a siege on the city, while the rest went after </span>Circesium<span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">When the Christians received the news of the Muslim invasion of their homeland, they abandoned the siege and hastily withdrew there. At this point Khalid and his mobile guard came out of the fort and devastated their army by attacking them from the rear.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">The Muslim column from the Persian front then moved north and "pacified" the Christian Upper Mesopotamian region ending Roman rule.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Seeing the defeat of their allies the Romans withdrew from Antioch. There are no reports of battles. I suspect the Romans simply boarded their ships and returned to the Taurus Mountains to bolster the defenses against Muslim invasion.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">Reports are these operations ended by mid-summer. So the entire Roman campaign might have lasted 3 to 5 months.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">The Middle East was now officially lost to the Empire.</u></b></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZr7N3-54d4o-45JdPcvd_ctOkgPyuXVmPqvz2RD7m2ftPeDUjxpgk6z5Dj1v_9mSI2-bwmFXfNaxi3Rj-k2DH2ZMlM2A2DF3hF6TWyP9vxP506w57nHYHybLYtMbp8S6IsChytTFrO_c/s640/11Limitanei+troops.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="640" data-original-width="478" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZr7N3-54d4o-45JdPcvd_ctOkgPyuXVmPqvz2RD7m2ftPeDUjxpgk6z5Dj1v_9mSI2-bwmFXfNaxi3Rj-k2DH2ZMlM2A2DF3hF6TWyP9vxP506w57nHYHybLYtMbp8S6IsChytTFrO_c/s16000/11Limitanei+troops.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" style="background-color: white; color: #888888; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">Limitanei</span></a><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700;">static frontier guard troops existed </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700;">through the Persian Wars and the Arab Conquest.</span></span></div><br /><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: large;">Read More:</span></span><br /><span style="color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">.</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/War%20-%20Roman%20Empire%20vs%20Islam" style="color: #888888; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part I - Roman Empire vs Islam - First Contact</span></span></a><br /><span style="color: white; font-size: large;">.</span><br /><a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/2017/02/a-persian-roman-army-fights-muslim.html" style="color: #888888; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part II - A Persian-Roman Army Fights Muslim Invaders</span></span></a><span style="color: white; font-size: large;">kk</span><br /><span style="color: white; font-size: large;"><br /></span><a href="http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/War%20-%20Battle%20for%20the%20Middle%20East%20Part%20III" style="color: #888888; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part III - Muslims Invade Roman Palestine</span></span></a><span style="color: white; font-size: large;">m</span><br /><span style="color: white; font-size: large;">.</span><br /><a href="http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/2018/05/battle-of-ajnadayn-islam-vs-christianity.html" style="color: #33aaff; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part IV - Battle of Ajnadayn</span></span></a><br /><span style="color: white; font-size: large;">kk</span><br /><a href="http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/War%20-%20Battle%20for%20the%20Middle%20East%20Part%20V" style="color: #888888; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part V - The 1st Battle of Yarmouk</span></span></a></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 1.4; text-align: left;"></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">.</span></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 1.4; text-align: left;"></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: center;"><a href="http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/2019/04/the-fall-of-damascus-battle-for-middle.html" style="color: #2288bb; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part VI - The Fall of Damascus</span></span></span></a></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 1.4; text-align: left;"></span><span style="color: blue; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br /></span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 1.4; text-align: left;"></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/2019/12/the-swaying-struggle-battle-for-middle.html" style="color: #33aaff;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part VII - The Swaying Struggle</span></span></span></a></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px; text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">k</span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; text-align: center;"><a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/War%20-%20Battle%20for%20the%20Middle%20East%20Part%20VIII" style="color: #2288bb; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part VIII - The Empire Strikes Back</span></span></a></div><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.com/search/label/War%20-%20Battle%20for%20the%20Middle%20East%20Part%20IX" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Part IX - The 2nd Battle of Yarmouk</span></a><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitYyyjOE1eo8lGAMp1oQ7yEUK5OPvm4uAPx2BCogTyDRDirrAXgQBTlRaxKCIdJuBv5nHVE_2TrJjhO1KwxtaOFG8vOtldTzxUUDMX9bXVfXwhyphenhyphenXByGJCZQJsJVM1nYaB45SI91WvVW0A/s1532/11armenia.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="906" data-original-width="1532" height="236" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitYyyjOE1eo8lGAMp1oQ7yEUK5OPvm4uAPx2BCogTyDRDirrAXgQBTlRaxKCIdJuBv5nHVE_2TrJjhO1KwxtaOFG8vOtldTzxUUDMX9bXVfXwhyphenhyphenXByGJCZQJsJVM1nYaB45SI91WvVW0A/w400-h236/11armenia.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Click to Enlarge</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Muslims Invade Roman Armenia</u></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">After the Roman collapse in Syria the Muslims push north taking <span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: left;">the whole of Armenia up to </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ararat_plain" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-align: left; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Ararat plain"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Ararat</span></a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: left;"> and raided northern and central Anatolia.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; text-align: left;"><span style="color: white;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 14px; text-align: start;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">In 641 Emperor </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_III_(Byzantine_emperor)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Constantine III (Byzantine emperor)"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Constantine III</span></a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> decided to recapture Syria.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> A full-scale invasion was planned and a large force was sent to reconquer Syria. </span>Muawiyah I<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">, the governor of Syria, called for reinforcements and</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"> defeated the Roman army in Northern Syria.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; text-align: start;"><span style="color: white;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">In 645–646, Sufyan bin Mujib Al-Azdi managed to seize </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0645ad; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Tripoli, Lebanon">Tripoli</a><span style="color: #202122; text-align: start;"><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">captured the last Roman stronghold</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> on the Levantine coast.</span></span></span></div><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.amazon.com/great-Arab-conquests-Bagot-Glubb/dp/1566196809" style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">(Great Arab Conquests)</span></a><span face="Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-size: 13.2px;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;"> </span><span style="color: #222222;"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" target="_blank"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">(Muslim Conquest)</span></a></span></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-699820429313289113.post-48787616097765976302021-02-16T12:52:00.002-08:002021-02-16T15:09:51.951-08:00Constantinople - Capital of the Roman Empire<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUN9-AsMCkKOY55DS-CyUDEDUr6XqR7LJ3HLaxT_foMImNYYctnoCX4SDA2dU58FvxRLvKKidW6J-318DBoH7eZGWFTKP5Ag5j8-cEWAJvDjFXeUTbwH_IUQwsuyIwl-bSdbnt2_d9DPs/s1366/11empire1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="738" data-original-width="1366" height="216" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUN9-AsMCkKOY55DS-CyUDEDUr6XqR7LJ3HLaxT_foMImNYYctnoCX4SDA2dU58FvxRLvKKidW6J-318DBoH7eZGWFTKP5Ag5j8-cEWAJvDjFXeUTbwH_IUQwsuyIwl-bSdbnt2_d9DPs/w400-h216/11empire1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click images to enlarge to full screen</span></b></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Constantinople - Capital of Western Civilization.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">A friend emailed me some recreations of Constantinople off the internet. My favorite is the photo above. This one photo displays the glory of the Eastern Empire: the Hippodrome, the Great Palace and Hagia Sophia.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Many historians look down on Constantinople and the Eastern Roman Empire. Many look down because they are snobs. Many others out of ignorance.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">To compare you need to look at European life outside the boundaries of the Roman Empire. For example, take Paris around the year 500 AD. It was an overgrown village of perhaps 20,000 mostly illiterate people basically living in their own filth.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">In the same year of 500 AD Constantinople had <b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">a sophisticated urban population of about 500,000 people.</u></b> The city was served by a strong government, a professional military, libraries, schools, hospitals, entertainment, aqueducts and more. It was also capital of a Roman Empire that stretched from North Africa to Persia to the Balkans.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Constantinople</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> was the </span>capital city<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> of the </span>Roman Empire<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (330–395), the Eastern Roman</span> Empire<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (395–1204 and 1261–1453).</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">In founding the new city the Emperor Constantine stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Asia" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Diocese of Asia">Asiana</a><span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Pontus" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Diocese of Pontus">Pontica</a><span style="background-color: white;"> and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to the citizens. </span><span style="background-color: white;">At the time, the amount is said to have been </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">80,000 rations a day</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">These photos help us understand a vanished civilization.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-rXZpxP3UcpySoDd8z0IJZ87zVEIniTStG9lrJZEUHVPS_vLmeMoZlVEnCdTY4mpVq74aUzAg-KcPUcVIIXZHtyS6wQQwXqlmvUTg6lpT4L3EeKDDBOVmuZpqkuwMArt9fOk2cmnBb3k/s1366/11empire2.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="738" data-original-width="1366" height="216" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-rXZpxP3UcpySoDd8z0IJZ87zVEIniTStG9lrJZEUHVPS_vLmeMoZlVEnCdTY4mpVq74aUzAg-KcPUcVIIXZHtyS6wQQwXqlmvUTg6lpT4L3EeKDDBOVmuZpqkuwMArt9fOk2cmnBb3k/w400-h216/11empire2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click images to enlarge to full screen</span></b></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrwvRF8iPzdvVy8onrl4a-goqgnfgtmjSJH-IKlH8HMsmViyQGtvoixTLcIiyZN3U4QKKq0OQKzuLcvzTO-BevV2qqk7BSdd4jUI-Xkb4xUbM0TZNxbOFyAKo3IMnM5XjLAYGs_H5Ok3M/s1366/11empire3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="738" data-original-width="1366" height="216" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrwvRF8iPzdvVy8onrl4a-goqgnfgtmjSJH-IKlH8HMsmViyQGtvoixTLcIiyZN3U4QKKq0OQKzuLcvzTO-BevV2qqk7BSdd4jUI-Xkb4xUbM0TZNxbOFyAKo3IMnM5XjLAYGs_H5Ok3M/w400-h216/11empire3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiTRm9i7O60Ew-CWbHrUB0cWsU5eylt05zRMgcTxU1o0dDJK6lr5Q7X2dILVM261Z8JTAstSqoUY7dfIg7OYo1s_Afccbzv7hjxUTcur1JIN0V37SXXCKLjVbbulJxW7kJ2QaNk7AIXeQ/s960/11empire4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="528" data-original-width="960" height="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiTRm9i7O60Ew-CWbHrUB0cWsU5eylt05zRMgcTxU1o0dDJK6lr5Q7X2dILVM261Z8JTAstSqoUY7dfIg7OYo1s_Afccbzv7hjxUTcur1JIN0V37SXXCKLjVbbulJxW7kJ2QaNk7AIXeQ/w400-h220/11empire4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">The </span><b style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Imperial University of Constantinople</b><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, sometimes known as the </span><b style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">University of the Palace Hall of Magnaura</b><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, was an </span>Eastern Roman<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> educational institution that could trace its corporate origins to 425 AD, when it was founded by the Emperor </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_II" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a>.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">The original school was founded in 425 by Emperor </span>Theodosius II<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> with 31 chairs for </span>law<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, </span>philosophy<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, </span>medicine<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, </span>arithmetic<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, </span>geometry<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, </span>astronomy<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, </span>music<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, </span>rhetoric<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> and other subjects, 15 to </span>Latin<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> and 16 to </span>Greek<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">. The university existed until the 15th century.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Eastern Roman society on the whole was an educated one. Primary education was widely available, sometimes even at village level and uniquely in that era for both sexes. Female participation in culture was high. Scholarship was fostered not only in Constantinople but also in institutions operated in such major cities as </span>Antioch<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> and </span>Alexandria<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2-m3n5nI2OlWbLqdafKhM466AtRUQhRKyobJOEREmCFHHWKSkdW7B-2CrMCqoE5TVNqJK9hHKUAQLk5OkSC6lhX2YS1AH10QzLrm7hmET3uJqXT3sR57_ifG7P2LtXCUp0x0Uq-0AYyk/s960/11empire5.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="395" data-original-width="960" height="165" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2-m3n5nI2OlWbLqdafKhM466AtRUQhRKyobJOEREmCFHHWKSkdW7B-2CrMCqoE5TVNqJK9hHKUAQLk5OkSC6lhX2YS1AH10QzLrm7hmET3uJqXT3sR57_ifG7P2LtXCUp0x0Uq-0AYyk/w400-h165/11empire5.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click images to enlarge to full screen</span></b></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgi3j7Wdp7DP9_s9l-QBVkxOLFMpWsJ72u6yMjbTQzzcaeQbKILkGHQU5QJXJw2tpGvOMJN-iip9yxMelhfxjFdcOfeMJ9vgehBSBB8F-1gVsb7DpGWSPBxeC3OH6-ZGIYIH2LFvNefQ4o/s960/11empire6.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="571" data-original-width="960" height="238" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgi3j7Wdp7DP9_s9l-QBVkxOLFMpWsJ72u6yMjbTQzzcaeQbKILkGHQU5QJXJw2tpGvOMJN-iip9yxMelhfxjFdcOfeMJ9vgehBSBB8F-1gVsb7DpGWSPBxeC3OH6-ZGIYIH2LFvNefQ4o/w400-h238/11empire6.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQgXLZjhmtW42D_vm2fyy0WbgG-sfEwkO83sfbnaGCtJ1WVIB96_ynXbHYwqLpx9tYTTF8OWVhWTQJNTLSwaBbN2-5JKObnRr0Z6AlCiZanH9QCVYXiYqVqZxSUBotKJmvZei-KX8eNaM/s960/11empire7.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="563" data-original-width="960" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQgXLZjhmtW42D_vm2fyy0WbgG-sfEwkO83sfbnaGCtJ1WVIB96_ynXbHYwqLpx9tYTTF8OWVhWTQJNTLSwaBbN2-5JKObnRr0Z6AlCiZanH9QCVYXiYqVqZxSUBotKJmvZei-KX8eNaM/w400-h235/11empire7.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">The </span><b style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">Imperial Library of Constantinople</b><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, in the capital city of the Eastern Roman</span> Empire<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">, was the last of the </span>great libraries of the ancient world<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">. Long after the destruction of the Great </span>Library of Alexandria<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> and the other ancient libraries, it preserved the knowledge of the ancient </span>Greeks<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> and </span>Romans<span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"> for almost 1,000 years.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: start;">The majority of Greek classics known today are known through copies originating from the Imperial Library of Constantinople. </span><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: white;">The library is estimated to have contained </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">well over 100,000 volumes</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"> of ancient text.</span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMhdK1MB71oSb_zkFj0ZVQC14ncmbJhU3UFf2HWAUdEl9QKxT5lEfh_I8Qbctu33tK0yys3LLgigKKbBBhE0Ya-Vr4rPpX6ryZHHxaoNNbHjCrZ-GwjcsG3SfFqHfDT1QWqx5lsRbCaz4/s960/11empire8.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="550" data-original-width="960" height="229" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMhdK1MB71oSb_zkFj0ZVQC14ncmbJhU3UFf2HWAUdEl9QKxT5lEfh_I8Qbctu33tK0yys3LLgigKKbBBhE0Ya-Vr4rPpX6ryZHHxaoNNbHjCrZ-GwjcsG3SfFqHfDT1QWqx5lsRbCaz4/w400-h229/11empire8.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click on images to enlarge to full screen</span></b></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrh4VpCAon9k-iE9y2IHgRwd_UOlNmeCVai7EHFDDY8CZakWvf2EGebbxaSEcRNlpOj9VPp9g8kUA-vJKwnKlcWUZX_GHiMc8vEPPny-SUU4VAsNBTnq8TwE2CpMsqr5jSwc-xl7cczMY/s867/11empire9.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="365" data-original-width="867" height="169" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrh4VpCAon9k-iE9y2IHgRwd_UOlNmeCVai7EHFDDY8CZakWvf2EGebbxaSEcRNlpOj9VPp9g8kUA-vJKwnKlcWUZX_GHiMc8vEPPny-SUU4VAsNBTnq8TwE2CpMsqr5jSwc-xl7cczMY/w400-h169/11empire9.png" width="400" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWxElP3XhkdWgPDyfnw3-_xzuUJGlPPqMLmyY1qCJmJeY27xoyr0Bbg3StIS35oeWNLW-WdyGC4Npgk4RCMGu8KrlToiWYkkslpjpxJq76oQMgpKm1t4kxMLy1dPWloDEm_DJssWl9_i4/s1119/11empire10.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="544" data-original-width="1119" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWxElP3XhkdWgPDyfnw3-_xzuUJGlPPqMLmyY1qCJmJeY27xoyr0Bbg3StIS35oeWNLW-WdyGC4Npgk4RCMGu8KrlToiWYkkslpjpxJq76oQMgpKm1t4kxMLy1dPWloDEm_DJssWl9_i4/w400-h195/11empire10.png" width="400" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><p style="background-color: white; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Sir Steven Runciman, historian of the Crusades, wrote that the sack of Constantinople is "unparalleled in history".</span></p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white;">For nine centuries, [...] the great city had been the capital of Christian civilisation. It was filled with works of art that had survived from ancient Greece and with the masterpieces of its own exquisite craftsmen. The Venetians [...] seized treasures and carried them off to adorn [...] their town. But the Frenchmen and Flemings were filled with a lust for destruction. They rushed in a howling mob down the streets and through the houses, snatching up everything that glittered and destroying whatever they could not carry, </span><b><u style="background-color: #fcff01;">pausing only to murder or to rape</u></b><span style="background-color: white;">, or to break open the wine-cellars [...] . Neither monasteries nor churches nor libraries were spared. In Hagia Sophia itself, drunken soldiers could be seen tearing down the silken hangings and pulling the great silver iconostasis to pieces, while sacred books and icons were trampled under foot. While they drank merrily from the altar-vessels a prostitute set herself on the Patriarch's throne and began to sing a ribald French song. Nuns were ravished in their convents. Palaces and hovels alike were entered and wrecked. Wounded women and children lay dying in the streets. For three days the ghastly scenes [...] continued, till the huge and beautiful city was a shambles. [...] When [...] order was restored, [...] citizens were tortured to make them reveal the goods that they had contrived to hide.</span></span></p></blockquote></div><div><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwajHpm6xxZzRBT7D0lx3zYkZIHSoM0Ojd_CDUWuE2VpjWXwcEZMSMpmzWFi4pe6Mg-lMxlQPBP59wfzIBg7uJ9DhglIUZNhClB9L7hBk3DARdYM03_H_dydT933L8xAOW3rFHgSJ_1a4/s1109/11empire11.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="615" data-original-width="1109" height="221" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwajHpm6xxZzRBT7D0lx3zYkZIHSoM0Ojd_CDUWuE2VpjWXwcEZMSMpmzWFi4pe6Mg-lMxlQPBP59wfzIBg7uJ9DhglIUZNhClB9L7hBk3DARdYM03_H_dydT933L8xAOW3rFHgSJ_1a4/w400-h221/11empire11.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Click images to enlarge to full screen</span></b></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLYTr_wn2iea4p2noXPlB3omDH0QUkziMy_3U5nv8h75ka0IXGi0zSkywIUoBO9vgSqP2PmYEYhqIDuzk1geG3t1R8t0-BsyEKvAgToBsKSSbDoMI47MX_FxPC1EjcgkVLyM2oIzMd8FU/s1113/11empire12.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="617" data-original-width="1113" height="221" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLYTr_wn2iea4p2noXPlB3omDH0QUkziMy_3U5nv8h75ka0IXGi0zSkywIUoBO9vgSqP2PmYEYhqIDuzk1geG3t1R8t0-BsyEKvAgToBsKSSbDoMI47MX_FxPC1EjcgkVLyM2oIzMd8FU/w400-h221/11empire12.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-H-tcHW0kyleBXy2O6fYoFAE8TvWzbH5qHT6cwR9tLmaqdw2oPyUHmJUjtnbWu989VQKuMUHw-slJktSWBVkMdmN5QCtc6wTrC6ADTnTp_pMNK7DCtqNRNIgwym6Nt8PM54jokYMJLKg/s1024/11Old-Walls-Of-Constantinople-Tours.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="552" data-original-width="1024" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-H-tcHW0kyleBXy2O6fYoFAE8TvWzbH5qHT6cwR9tLmaqdw2oPyUHmJUjtnbWu989VQKuMUHw-slJktSWBVkMdmN5QCtc6wTrC6ADTnTp_pMNK7DCtqNRNIgwym6Nt8PM54jokYMJLKg/w400-h215/11Old-Walls-Of-Constantinople-Tours.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div><br /></div><h1 class="title style-scope ytd-video-primary-info-renderer" style="background: rgb(249, 249, 249); border: 0px; color: var(--ytd-video-primary-info-renderer-title-color, var(--yt-spec-text-primary)); line-height: var(--yt-navbar-title-line-height, 2.4rem); margin: 0px; max-height: calc(2 * var(--yt-navbar-title-line-height, 2.4rem)); overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; text-align: center; text-shadow: var(--ytd-video-primary-info-renderer-title-text-shadow, none); transform: var(--ytd-video-primary-info-renderer-title-transform, none);"><yt-formatted-string class="style-scope ytd-video-primary-info-renderer" force-default-style="" style="word-break: break-word;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><u>The Wondrous Waters of Constantinople</u></span></yt-formatted-string></h1><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;">This computer recreation of Constantinople gives us a stunning visual of what the city looked like.</span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: red; font-size: medium;"><b style="background-color: #fcff01;">Click on the YouTube link to watch.</b></span></p><p><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/uX4UJv-eIjQ" width="550"></iframe>
</p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" target="_blank">(Constantinople)</a><br /></p><p><br /></p>Garyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09879366155439374458noreply@blogger.com1